m 


__,;v-    '      .  •  W^-.^-j! 


u.  s. 
"SNAP  SHOTS" 

An    Independent,   National,    and    Memorial    Encyclopedia. 

(Alphabetically  Arranged  for  Ready  Reference.) 

A  GAZETTEER  OF  NATIONAL  INDUSTRIES. 

Products,  Agriculture,  Manufactures,  Wealth,  Religious  Denominations, 
etc.     Great  Inventions  and  Inventors,  according  to  the  1890  census. 

NATIONAL  AND  STATE  POLITICS,  PARTIES,  AND  STATESMEN. 


Interesting  Reminiscences,  Anecdotes,  Songs,  Fun,  Witticisms 
and  Slang  of  Famous  Campaigns. 

THE    STUMP,    TORCH-LIGHT  PROCESSIONS,  PARADES.       BRASS  BANDS 

IN    POLITICS. 


Chronicle  outline  of  American  History  from  986  to  1892,   with  a   FULL 
AND  AUTHENTIC  DESCRIPTION  OF  THE 

WORLD'S   COLUMBIAN   EXPOSITION. 


Facts  about  Presidents  and  Biographical  Stories,  Anecdotes,  and  Remi- 
niscences of  the  Presidential   and  Vice-Presidential   Nominees 
of  the  Republican  and  Democratic  Parties  and 
their   Wives   and   Families. 


By     OLIVER     McKEE. 


Illustrated  with    many  photo-chromatic  color  plates,  and  over  200  Engravings  and 
Portraits  by  the  BEST  AMERICAN  ARTISTS. 


Copyrighted 

by  A.  M.  Thayer  &  Co. , 

Boston,  Mass. 


PUBLISHERS'   PREFACE. 


THE  design  of  this  book  is  to  collect  and  group  in  a  convenient 
arrangement  those  facts  regarding  the  political  history,  the  insti- 
tutions, the  government,  and  the  industries  of  the  United  States, 
which  every  thoughtful  citizen  may  reasonably  be  expected  to 
desire  to  have  knowledge  of.  While  the  first  aim  has  been  to  lay 
most  stress  upon  the  origin  of  political  institutions,  parties,  laws, 
public  questions,  etc.,  it  was  felt  that  this  purpose  would  not  be 
adequately  realized  without  giving  an  outline  sketch  of  the  indus- 
tries and  commerce  of  the  country,  so  nearly  related  nowadays 
are  legislation  and  the  national  material  development.  For  this 
reason,  descriptions  are  given  of  the  States  and  Territories,  with 
their  industrial  statistics  compiled  from  the  census  of  1890,  and 
with  their  more  prominent  characteristics  defined. 

The  encyclopaedic  arrangement  has  been  supplemented  by  an 
exhaustive  system  of  cross-references,  by  which  it  is  hoped  that 
the  seeker  after  information  may  obtain  what  he  desires  to  know 
in  the  shortest  possible  time.  All  of  the  important,  sub-divisions 
of  chapters  are  indexed  in  alphabetical  order,  and  in  each  case 
are  referred  to  the  caption  under  which  they  naturally  would  be 
found.  For  instance,  anything  of  a  military  character  will  be 
found  under  the  head  of  the  United  States  Army ;  subjects  in  any 
way  connected  with  the  Post-Office  Department  under  that  head, 
and  anything  relating  to  ships  or  shipping  under  Shipbuilding. 
To  make  the  reference  even  more  convenient,  sub-heads  of  mam 
heads,  or,  in  oilier  words,  the  essential  facts  in  each  chapter  are 
outlined  by  captions  to  be  found  in  close  conjunction  with  the 

2030042 


PREFACE. 

main  caption  itself.  A  glance  at  each  caption,  therefore,  will 
show  all  that  the  chapter  contains. 

It  is  impossible  in  a  work  of  this  kind  that  some  errors,  involv- 
ing questions  of  fact,  should  not  be  made.  If  any  reader  finds 
such  errors,  the  publishers  will  be  gratified  if  he  will  point  them 
out,  in  order  that  in  later  editions  they  may  be  corrected. 

Several  works  of  a  kindred  nature  have  been  drawn  upon  for 
some  of  the  material  in  the  book,  a  fact  which  the  author  desires 
to  publicly  acknowledge.  The  more  important  of  these  books  are 
Johnston's  "  American  Politics,"  Townsend's  "  U.  S.  Facts,"  the 
"  Dictionary  of  American  Politics,"  and  John  Fiske's  "  Civil  Gov- 
ernment," all  of  which  are  especially  valuable  to  any  student  of 
United  States  history  and  institutions. 


Abolition,  Abolitionists.      (See  Political  Parties.) 
Accidental  President,  The.     (See  Presidents  of  the  United 

States.) 

Accidents,  Railroad.     (See  Railroads  and  Bridges.) 

Administration  Should  Be  Conducted  behind  Glass  Doors. 

(See  Sayings  of  Famous  Americans.) 

Admission  of  States  into  the  Union. — The  dates  on  which 
the  thirteen  original  States  ratified  the  Constitution,  and  those 
on  which  the  rest  have  been  admitted  into  the  Union  are  as 
follows :  — 


1.  Delaware,-Dec.  7,  1787;  -2:'>. 

2.  Pennsylvania,  Dec.  12,  1787;  -4. 

3.  New  Jersey,  Dec.  18,  1787;  25. 

4.  Georgia,  Jan.  2,  1788;  26. 

5.  Connecticut,  Jan.  9,  1788;  27. 

6.  Massachusetts,  Feb.  7,  1788;  28. 

7.  Maryland,  April  28,  1788;  29. 

8.  South  Carolina,  May  23, 1788;  30. 

9.  New  Hampshire,  June  21, 1788;      31. 

10.  Virginia,  June  26,  1788;  32. 

11.  New  York,  July  26,  1788;  33. 

12.  North  Carolina,  Nov.  21,  1789;  34. 

13.  Rhode  Island,  May  29,  1790;  35. 

14.  Vermont,  March  4,  1791 ;  36. 

15.  Kentucky,  June  1,  1792;  37. 

16.  Tennessee,  June  1,  1796;  38. 

17.  Ohio,  Nov.  29,  1802;  39. 

18.  Louisiana,  April  30,  1812;  .    40. 

19.  Indiana,  Dec.  11,  1816;  41. 

20.  Mississippi,  Dec.  10,  1817;  42. 

21.  Illinois,  Dec.  3,  1818;  43. 

22.  Alabama,  Dec.  14,  1819;  44. 


Maine,  March  15,  1820; 
Missouri,  Aug.  10,  1821 ; 
Arkansas,  June  15, 1836; 
Michigan,  Jan.  26,  1837; 
Florida,  March  3,  1845; 
Texas,  Dec.  29,  1845; 
Iowa,  Dec.  28,  1846; 
Wisconsin,  May  29,  1848; 
California,  Sept.  9,  1850; 
Minnesota,  May  11,  1858; 
Oregon,  Feb.  14,  1859; 
Kansas,  Jan.  29,  1861; 
West  Virginia,  June  19,  1863; 
Nevada,  Oct.  31,  1864; 
Nebraska,  March  1,  1867; 
Colorado,  Aug.  1,  1876; 
No.  Dakota,  Nov.  3,  1889; 
So.  Dakota,  Nov.  3,  1889; 
Montana,  Nov.  8,  1889; 
Washington,  Nov.  11,  1889; 
Llalio,  July3,  1890; 
Wyoming,  July  11,  1890. 


Agricultural  Wheel.     (See  Political  Parties.) 
Agriculture. 

Corn,  Hay, 

Oats,  Wool, 

Wheat,  Barley, 

Rye, 


Tobacco, 
Farm  Animals, 
Cotton, 
Sugar. 


34 


AGRICULTURE. 


When  Capt.  John  Smith  landed  in  America  in  1607,  he 
found  the  Indians  growing  Corn.  He  thus  describes  the 
process :  "  They  make  a  hole  in  the  earth  with  a  stick,  and 
into  it  they  put  four  grains  of  wheat  (i.  e.  maize)  and  two  of 
beans.  These  holes  they  make  four  feet  from  one  another. 
Their  women  and  children  do  continually  keep  it  with  weeding, 
and  when  it  is  grown  middle  high,  they  hill  it  about  like  a  hop 
yard.  In  May  also  among  their  corn  they  plant  pompeons." 
What  the  English  explorer  thus  described  was  the  Beginning 
of  Agriculture  in  America.  The  one  great  need  of  the  early 
colonists  was  live-stock.  A  few  cows  were  brought  over  to  Vir- 
ginia in  1607,  and  by  1620  the  number  was  500.  In  1639,  the 

number  was  30,- 
000.  The  First 
Cattle  were  im- 
ported in  1623, 
and  seven 
later  100 
arrived, 
vious  to 
however, 
had  been 


years 
cows 
Pre- 

this, 
cattle 
intro- 


duced into  the 
Spanish  settle- 
ments in  Central 
America  by  the 
Spanish,  and  here  were  raised  the  progenitors  of  the  modern 
Texas  steers,  and  many  domestic  stocks  also  sprang  from  the 
Spanish  importations.  Although  in  remote  times  The  Horse 
inhabited  Ameiica,  the  species  was  extinct  by  the  time  the  colo- 
nists arrived ;  the  ancestors  of  the  modern  American  Horse  were 
imported  by  the  Spanish,  the  Dutch,  and  the  English. 

Wheat  was  imported,  and  was  sown  in  an  island  in  Buzzard's 
Bay  by  Gosnold  in  1602.  It  was  first  sown  in  Virginia  in  1611. 
It  remained  the  staple  crop  until  1648,  when  it  was  surpassed 
by  Tobacco.  In  1622,  Virginia  raised  60,000  pounds  of 
tobacco.  The  industry  grew  to  such  proportions  that  between 
1622  and  1644  the  crop  aggregated  40,000,000  pounds.  Of  the 
colonies,  New  Jersey  was  the  most  productive. 

Potatoes  came  from  South  America.  By  1725,  all  the 
cereals  were  grown  in  abundance,  the  staple  food  product  being 
the  native  Indian  Corn,  which  was  eaten  either  as  hominy, 
hasty  pudding,  pone  bread,  or  succotash  (a  mixture  of  corn  and 
beans)  and  was  to  be  found  on  every  table  between  Maine 
and  Georgia.  The  first  attempt  at  Cotton  Production  was  in 


AGRICULTURE. 


35 


South  Carolina,  in  1733,  with  seed  imported  from  Smyrna,  but 
after  that  seed  was  imported  from  the  West  Indies.  Cotton  was 
used  extensively  in  making  clothing  for  the  negroes.  Another 
difficulty  the  colonists  contended  with  was  the  lack  of  suitable 
tools  to  work  with. 

In    1017,  Ploughs   were   introduced,   rude   affairs  of  wood, 
heavy,  big,  and  requiring  a  strong  team  to  pull  them.     The  other 

farming  implements  were 
the  spade,  the  sickle,  the 
wooden   fork,    the    hoe, 
and    later    the    harrow. 
The     plough 
was  so  useful 


STEAM     PLOUGH. 


an  implement  that  Thomas  Jefferson  thought  it  worth  his  while  to 
try  to  have  it  improved,  and  he  succeeded  in  doing  so.  To  his 
efforts  is  due  the  introduction  of  the  first  hillside  plough. 

Reaping  Machines  were  experimented  with,  both  in  this 
country  and  in  England,  about  1800.  The  years  from  1800  to 
1830  saw  large  imports  of  blooded  cattle  and  sheep,  which  were 
used  to  excellent  advantage  for  breeding  purposes.  About  1810 
sheep  were  very  scarce,  and  therefore  wool  was  at  a  premium  ; 
as  high  as  $100  a  pound  in  1810,  and  in  1812,  $250  a  pound 
being  asked  for  the  finest  quality.  Rams  were  worth  $1,000 
each. 

The  period  from  1833  to  1860  was  one  of  progress.  Drain- 
age came  into  prominence,  the  first  real  attempt  at  irrigation 
being  that  of  the  Mormons,  at  Salt  Lake  City.  Improvement  of 
farm  buildings  and  in  farm  implements  was  noticeable.  Farmers 
came  to  realize  the  value  of  economy  in  the  use  of  manures.  The 
cereal  acreage  increased  with  the  opening  of  the  Pacific  railroads. 

Agriculture  took  a  great  stride  forward  with  the  invention  of 
the  McCormick  Reaper,  in  1834,  although  its  advantages 
were  not  at  once  appreciated.  From  1860  agriculture  has  moved 


36 


AGRICULTUKK. 


steadily  forward.  The  enactment  of  the  homestead  law,  the  work 
of  Agricultural  Colleges,  the  improvement  in  agricultural  imple- 
ments, the  organization  of  the  Grange,  and  the  establishment  by 
the  government  of  the  Department  of  Agriculture, —  these  have 
all  operated  to  make  agriculture  a  science  which  is  to-day  better 
understood  and  enjoys  a  higher  state  of  perfection  in  the  United 
States  than  in  any  land  under  the  sun.  Drainage,  irrigation,  the 
use  of  fertilizers,  intelligent  construction  of  farm  buildings,  not 
to  mention  the  invention  of  machinery  for  sowing  and  harvesting, 
have  made  possible  the  raising  of  immense  crops,  and  have  led  to 
the  opening  up  and  expansion  of  agricultural  industries  which 
heretofore  had  been  conducted  only  on  a  small  scale.  Among 
these  are  the  butter,  cheese,  and  milk  industries,  which  yield 
products  worth  millions  of  dollars  yearly. 

Of  Milk,  the  United  States  now  raises  upwards  of  60,000,000 
gallons  annually,  of  Butter,  the  product  is  upwards  of  770,000,- 
000  pounds,  and  of  Cheese  the  product  is  30,000,000  pounds. 
Another  immense  industry  allied  with  agriculture  is  the  raising  of 
Poultry,  Avhich  exceeds  70,000,000  fowls  in  a  year;  the  pro- 
duction of  Eggs  is  over  5,000,000,000. 

The  entire  agricultural  product  is  worth  over  $4,000,000,000  in 


5,000,000, 
10,000,000. 
duct     was 


a    year.      The    farms    number    over 
the  farmers  and  farm   laborers   over 

"Wheat. — In  1890,  the  wheat  pro- 
399,262,000  bushels,  with  an  acre- 
age   of  36,087,154  acres.     The 
product   was  valued  at   $334,- 
773,678.     The    Dakotas   led 
with      40,411,000      bushels, 
Minnesota  being  second 
with  38,356,000  bushels. 
In  wheat  production  the 
United  States  leads  all 
the  nations  of  the  earth, 
France     being     second 
with     325,000,000 
bushels,     India      third, 
with    235,000,000,    and 
Austria-Hungary  fourth 
with  217,000,000. 

Corn — In  1890,  the  yield  of  corn  was  1,489,970,000  bushels, 
from  71,970,763  acres;  the  product  was  valued  at  $754,433,451. 
Iowa  led  with  232,439,000  bushels. 

Oats,  Rye,  and  Barley — Of  rye  in  1890,  the  yield  was 
28,415,000  bushels  ;  of  barley,  63,884,000  ;  of  oats,  523,621,000. 


TOBACCO    CULTURE. 


AGRICULTURE.  37 

The  total  area  growing  cereals  was  146,281,000  acres.  The 
value  of  the  product  was  £1,320,255,398. 

Hay — Of  hay  in.  1888,  the  product  was  46,643,094  tons, 
valued  at  $408,499,565.  (For  Exports  of  Cereals  see  Exports 
and  Imports.) 

Potatoes. — The  potato  crop  aggregated  202,365,000  bushels, 
valued  at  §81,413,589  ;  the  acreage  for  potatoes  was  2,533, 2$o. 

"Wool.— The  product  of  wool  in  1890  was  276,000,000  pounds, 
which  was  an  average  yield;  imported,  105,431,281  pounds; 
domestic  wool  exported,  231,042  pounds  ;  foreign  wool  exported, 
3,288,467  pounds;  retained  for  home  consumption,  366,911,772 
pounds. 

Sugar. — The  sugar  producers  in  the  applications  for  licenses 
announced  their  prospective  production  as  follows  (year  ending 
June  30,  1891)  :  Cane  sugar,  447,157,709  pounds;  beet  sugar, 
7,971,777  pounds;  sorghum  sugar,  57,132,044  pounds;  total, 
512,261,530  pounds.  This  abnormally  large  production  is  due  to 
the  granting  of  bounties  to  sugar  manufacturers  under  the  act  of 


HARVESTING     THE     RYE    CROP. 


Oct.  1,  1890,  the  entrance  free  of  duty  of  beet  sugar  machinery, 
and  to  other  favoring  circumstances.  The  consumption  of  sugar 
per  capita  in  1891  was  62  pounds,  as  against  77.8  pounds  per 
capita  in  England. 

Cotton. — In  1891,  the  cotton  crop  aggregated  8,655,518  bales, 
the  largest  ever  grown.  The  exports  of  cotton  in  1890-91  were 
5,750,443  bales,  for  home  consumption,  2,642,912  bales. 

Tobacco. — The  production  of  tobacco  in  1888  (Secretary  of 
Agriculture's  Report)  was  565,795,000  pounds,  valued  at  $43,- 
666,665.  Kentucky  grew  the  largest  crop,  283,306,000  pounds, 
valued  at  821,247,971.  The  production  of  the  other  chief  to- 
bacco-growing States  was,  in  pounds,  as  follows :  Connecticut, 
9,603,000;  Illinois,  2,947,000;  Indiana,  16,153,000 ;  Maryland, 
14,017,000;  Massachusetts,  3,893,000  ;  Missouri,  13,109,000;  New 


38  ALABAMA. 

York,  6,488,000;  North  Carolina,  25,755,000;  Ohio,  35,195,000  ; 
Pennsylvania,  24,180,000;  Tennessee,  45,641,000;  Virginia, 
64,034;  West  Virginia,  4,496,000  ;  Wisconsin,  12,846,000.  '  The 
tobacco  crop  in  1890  aggregated  over  600,000,000  pounds. 

Farm  Animals  in  the  United  States. — The  Department 
of  Agriculture  reported  the  following  farm  animals  in  the  United 
States  in  1891 :  Horses,  14,056,750,  value,  $941,823,222  ;  mules, 
2,296,532,  value,  $178,847,370;  milch  cows,  16,019,591,  value, 
$346,397,900  ;  oxen  and  other  cattle,  36,875,648,  value,  §544,- 
127,908;  sheep,  43,431,136,  value,  $108,397,447  ;  swine,  50,625,- 
106,  value,  $210,193,923.  Total  value  of  farm  animals,  $2,:52i),- 
787,770.  In  the  number  of  sheep  in  1891,  Texas  led  the  States, 
having  4,990,272;  Ohio  was  second,  having  3,712,310;  New 
Mexico  third  with  3,123,663;  Oregon  fourth  with  2,431,759; 
Michigan  fifth  with  2,263,249  ;  Montana  sixth  with  2,089,337  ; 
and  Utah  seventh  with  2,055,900.  In  1888,  South  America  had 
99,928,607  sheep ;  Australasia,  86,245,520  ;  Russia  in  Europe, 
46,724,736;  British  India,  30,453,724  ;  Great  Britain  and  Ireland, 
29,401,750  ;  South  Africa,  23,746,179 ;  France,  22,688,230 ; 
Germany,  19,189,715  ;  Spain,  16,939,288  ;  total  in  foreign  lands, 
423,907,744. 

Agriculture,  Department  Of.      (See  Federal    Government.) 
Alabama.  —  The    State    was    founded    at    Mobile,    by    the 

French,  in  1702.  A  hundred  and 
fifty  years  before  that  the  Spaniards 
entered  the  region  in  search  of  gold. 
At  this  time  they  were  attacked  by 
the  natives  and  fought  with  them  a 
bloody  battle.  Alabama  did  not 
unite  with  the  thirteen  colonies  in 
their  conflict  with  England.  The 
Spaniards  retained  their  power  at 
Mobile  until  it  was  broken  by  Gen- 
eral Wilkinson's  army  from  New 
Orleans  in  1813.  In  1817  Congress 
GREAT  SEAL  OF  ALABAMA.  organized  the  territory,  and  two 
years  later  it  became  a  State  with 

about  127,000  inhabitants,  besides  the  Indians.  Cahaba  became 
the  capital  in  1820;  Tuskaloosa,  in  1826  ;  Montgomery,  in  1847. 
The  Indians  since  then  have  been  removed  to  the  Indian  Terri- 
tory. 

Agriculture  in  Alabama  employs  400,000  persons  on  140,000 
farms,  with  $80,000,000  worth  of  land  and  buildings,  and  $25,000,- 
000  in  live  stock,  the  yearly  products  being  valued  at  $57,000,000. 


ALABAMA. 


39 


The  largest  crop  is  of  Cotton,  which  averages  700,000  bales  ; 
of  tobacco,  the  average  is  450,000  Ibs.  ;  of  rice,  810,000  Ibs.  ;  of 
cereals,  40,000,000  bushels  ;  of  hay,  52,000  tons.  In  cotton  pro- 
duction, Alabama  is  the  Fourth  State. 

The  development  of  the  mineral  regions  has  of  late  years  be- 
come an  important  industry.  There  are  extensive  coal-fields  and 
iron-beds,  and  iron-manufacturing  has  attained  immense  propor- 
tions. 

Within  fifteen  years  the  Output  of  Pig-iron  has  increased 


MONTGOMEBY,    ALA.,    SHOWING     STATE    CAPITOL. 

so  that  the  State  now  ranks  next  to  Pennsylvania  an.d  Ohio- 
There  are  52  blast-furnaces  in  operation,  producing,  in  1889> 
890,432  tons  of  pig-iron.  A  fine  quality  of  steel  is  also  produced, 
the  product  being  very  large.  The  coal  yield  has  risen  to  340,- 
000  tons.  Alabama  is  also  noted  for  its  mineral  springs,  and  has 
numerous  health  resorts. 

The  State  supports  a  University  at  Tuskaloosa  in  which 
military  training  is  a  prominent  feature.  There  is  also  an  agri- 
cultural and  mechanical  college,  at  Auburn,  a  Methodist  Episco- 
pal church  college,  Howard  College  for  Baptists,  Spring  Hill 
College  (Catholic),  and  other  sectarian  institutions  and  a  medical 
college.  There  are  35  academies,  with  6,000  students,  including 
9  colleges  for  women.  There  are  four  Normal  Schools  for 
Colored  Students,  for  which  the  State  makes  yearly  appro- 
priations. 

The  population  of  Alabama  in  1880  was  1,262,505,  in  1890, 
1,513,017,  of  whom  662,185  were  white,  and  681,431  colored. 
The  net  public  debt  was  $11,992,619.  There  were  in  1890  3,313 
miles  of  railroads,  and  1,933  post-offices,  and  in  1892  there  were 


40 


ALABAMA. 


180  newspapers.     Mt.  Vernon  Barracks,  a  United   States  garri- 
son, is  situated  28  miles  north  of  Mobile. 

Mobile,  the  chief  city,  with  a  population  in  1890  of  31,076,  is 
a  vast  cotton  exporting  centre.  Birmingham  (population,  26,178) 
has  extensive  rolling  mills,  and  many  factories  producing  a  variety 
of  manufactures.  It  has  the  largest  iron  manufacturing  business 
of  any  city  outside  of  Pennsylvania.  Montgomery  (population, 
21,883)  is  a  manufacturing  and  cotton  centre.  The  Governor  of 
Alabama  is  Thomas  G.  Jones  (Democrat),  whose  term  expires 
Dec.  1,  1892.  The  State  is  Democratic. 

Alabama  Claims.  —  The  fact  that  in  English  ports  during  the 
Civil  War 
Confed  e  r  a  t  e 
cruisers  were 
allowed  to  be  * 
built,  and  that 
Confede  rate 
vessels  were 
allowed  to 
coal  and  arm 
there  while  at 
the  same  time 
neutrality  was 
strictly  en- 


forced  against  United  States  ships,  led 

to  the  display  of  much  bitterness  toward 

the  English  government  on  the  part  of 

the  Federal  government.     Chief  among 

the  cruisers  which  were  built  or  equipped  in  England  were  the 

Florida,  the  Georgia,  the    Shenandoah,  and  the  Alabama;    the 

last-named  because  of  her  especially  destructive  career  gave  her 

name  to  the    claims  which   arose  from  the  depredations  of  all 

such  vessels  on  the  commerce  of  the  United  States. 

As  a  result  of  Great  Britain's  action  in  these  matters,  the 
United  States  Claimed  Damages  from  her  for  "  direct  losses 
in  the  capture  and  destruction  of  a  large  number  of  vessels,  with 
their  cargoes,  and  in  the  heavy  national  expenditures  in  the  pur- 
suit of  the  cruisers  ;  and  indirect  injury  in  the  transfer  of  a  large 
part  of  the  American  commercial  marine  to  the  British  flag,  in 
the  enhanced  payment  of  insurance,  in  the  prolongation  of  the 
war,  and  in  the  addition  of  a  large  sum  to  the  cost  of  the  war  and 
the  suppression  of  the  Rebellion."  The  dispute  between  the  two 
governments  stood  unsettled  until  after  the  war.  In  1866,  this 
government  offered  to  submit  the  dispute  to  arbitration  ;  England 


MUSCLE    SHOALS    AND    CANALS, 
ALABAMA. 


ALASKA.  41 

objected,  and  proposed  instead  a  joint  commission  to  settle  this 
and  other  disputes.  The  Commission  met  and  signed  the  Treaty 
of  Washington,  in  1871,  the  result  of  which  was  an  Arbitration 
Commission,  which  met  at  Geneva,  Switzerland,  and  on  Sept. 
14,  1872,  awarded  to  the  United  States  damages  amounting  to 
$15,500,000,  which  was  paid.  (See  Geneva  Award.) 

Albany  Regency.     (See  Political  Parties.) 

Alaska. —  Navigators  sailing  under  the  Russian  flag  in  1741, 
were  the  first  to  land  on  the  shores  of  Alaska.  In  1799,  the 
Emperor  Paul  of  Russia  granted  a  charter  to  the  Russian- 
American  Company,  who  conquered  the  country  as  far  as  Sitka, 
penetrated  to  California,  and  opened  trade  with  China  and  the 
Spanish  colonies.  Priests  of  the  Greek  church,  acting  with  the 
Russian  government,  Christianized  thousands  of  the  natives. 
Following  the  advice  of  Seward  and  Sumner,  in  1867  this 
government  bought  Alaska  from  Russia  for  $7,200,000  in 
gold. 

The  Climate  of  southern  Alaska  is  moderated  by  the  influence 
of  the  ocean.  The  mean  temperature  of  Sitka  is  54  degrees  in 
summer  and  31  degrees  in  winter.  The  government  consists  of 
a  governor,  a  district  judge,  and  a  district  attorney,  besides  a 
collector  of  customs,  several  commissioners,  and  a  marshal. 
Education  is  under  the  direction  of  the  United  States  Commis- 
sioner of  Education.  There  are  eighteen  day  schools  supported 
by  the  government. 

The  Fisheries  of  Alaska  are  of  enormous  value ;  upwards  of 
fifty  American  vessels  come  to  the  fishing  grounds  annually, 
getting  $1,500,000  a  year  in  ivory,  bone,  and  oil.  The  yearly 
yield  of  furs  has  reached  100,000  fur  seals,  5,000,000  otters, 
10,000,000  beavers,  12,000,000  foxes,  and  20,000,000  martens. 

The  value  of  Fur-Seal  skins  shipped  from  Alaska  and  sold  in 
the  London  markets  since  the  Territory  came  into  the  possession 
of  the  United  States  is  given  as  nearly  $33,000,000,  and  of  other 
furs  as  $16,000,000.  With  regard  to  the  fisheries,  the  value  of 
the  product  of  the  salmon  canneries  alone  from  1884  to  1890  is 
reported  at  nearly  $7,000,000,  and  of  salmon  salted  at  $500,000. 
In  1890  over  3,000,000  salmon  were  taken  at  Karluk,  where  the 
largest  cannery  in  the  world  is  situated,  and  no  fewer  than  200,- 
000  cases  of  salmon  were  canned  at  this  place  last  year,  1,100 
fishermen  and  packers  being  employed  therein.  The  Herring 
fishery  at  Killisnoo  jdelds  annually  over  150,000  gallons  of  oil  and 
nearly  1,000  tons  of  fertilizing  material,  and  the  value  of  the  cod- 
fish catch  in  Alaskan  waters  since  1868  is  stated  to  be  fully  $3,000,- 
000.  The  whale  fisheries  of  the  Arctic  Ocean  in  1890  yielded 


42  AXIEN    AND    SEDITION    LAWS. 

226,402  pounds  of  whalebone,  worth  from  $2.50  to  $3.50  per 
pound ;  3,980  pounds  of  ivory,  worth  50  cents  per  pound,  and 
14,567  barrels  of  oil,  worth  from  30  to  60  cents  per  gallon.  The 
total  value  of  the  precious  metals  exported  from  Alaska  up  to  the 
present  time  approaches  $4,000,000,  the  annual  production  of 
gold  dust  and  bullion  being  now  $700,000. 

The  United  States  Government  has  received  in  income  from 
the  Seal  Islands  more  than  it  paid  for  the  Territory. 

The  Capital  of  Alaska  is  Sitka,  which  had  a  population  in 
1890  of  1,188.  Metlakahtla,  on  Annette  Island,  is  the  home  of 
1,000  semi-civilized  Indians  from  British  Columbia.  The  popu- 
lation of  the  Territory  in  1880  was  33,426,  of  whom  430  were 
white;  in  1890  the  population  was  30,329,  of  whom  4,419  were 
white.  The  area  of  Alaska  is  531,000  square  miles ;  there  are 
320  towns  and  villages,  50  government  and  mission  schools,  and 
four  newspapers.  The  governor  of  Alaska  is  Lyman  E.  Knapp 
(Rep>),  whose  term  expires  January  9,  1893. 

Alexander,  the  Coppersmith.  (See  Nicknames  of  Famous 
Americans.) 

Alien  and  Sedition  Laws. —  When  the  trouble  between  the 
United  States  and  France  arose  in  1797,  the  Federalists  attempted 
to  strengthen  themselves  by  the  enactment  of  certain  laws  which 
were  very  unpopular  with  the  people.  ( See  X.  Y.  Z.  Mis- 
sion.) 

The  Alien  Law  authorized  the  President  to  order  such  aliens 
as  he  regarded  as  dangerous,  to  quit  the  country,  and  to  fine  and 
imprison  such  as  refused.  The  law  also  lengthened  the  period 
of  residence  necessary  for  naturalization  to  fourteen  years.  The 
Sedition  Law  punished  with  fine  and  imprisonment  all  persons 
who  combined  or  conspired  to  oppose  the  government,  or  who 
produced  or  circulated  any  false,  scandalous,  or  malicious  writing 
against  the  government,  or  the  President,  or  Congress.  This 
law  was  the  result  of  the  attacks  made  upon  the  government's 
policy  in  its  attitude  toward  France. 

Intense  feeling  against  the  Federalists  was  engendered  by  these 
laws,  and  in  1 798,  Kentucky  and  Virginia  legislatures  adopted 
resolutions,  in  effect  that  by  these  laws  the  Constitution  had  been 
violated,  that  the  laws  were  Unconstitutional,  that  the  Federal 
government  had  overstepped  the  boundary  of  its  delegated 
authority,  that  the  laws  abridged  liberty  of  speech  and  'of  the 
press,  and  that  in  such  a  case  of  abuse  of  power,  the  States  should 
interpose. 

The  Kentucky  resolutions  even  went  so  far  as  to  declare  that 
"Nullification  "  in  this  extremity  was  the  "rightful  remedy," 


AMENDMENTS    TO    THE    CONSTITUTION.  43 

but  did  not  use  the  word  in  the  application  of  its  later  relation  to 

the  doctrine  of  State  rights. 

Alien  Contract  Labor.      (See  Immigration,  Restriction  of.) 
Alieil  Land  Owners.      (See  Public  Lands  and  Land  Grants.) 
Alitinde    Joe.      (See  Nicknames  of  Famous  Americans.) 
Allegiance. —  The  doctrine  of  allegiance  is  that  every  citizen 

of  the   United   States   owes  paramount  allegiance  to  the  national 

government. 

All  Quiet  Along  the  Potoill  iC.  (See  Sayings  of  Famous 
Americans.) 

All  We  Ask  Is  To  Be  Let  Alone.  (See  Sayings  of  Famous 
Americans.) 

Amendments  to  the  Constitution. — There  have  been  fifteen 
in  all,  the  first  ten  of  which  were  adopted  in  1789,  and  were 
intended  to  guarantee  freedom  of  religion,  speech,  person,  and 
property.  The  eleventh  was  adopted  in  1794,  and  secured  States 
against  suits  in  United  States  Courts,  thus  enabling,  since  then, 
many  States  to  repudiate  their  debts.  The  twelfth,  adopted  in 
1803,  shaped  the  manner  of  electing  Presidents  as  it  is  to-day. 
The  thirteenth,  adopted  in  1864,  was  proposed  for  the  purpose  of 
making  emancipation  universal  in  the  nation,  and  prohibiting 
slavery  forever.  The  fourteenth  amendment,  adopted  in  1865, 
injected  into  the  Constitution  the  principle  of  the  Civil  Rights 
Bill,  which  gave  citizenship  to  4,000,000  freed  men.  All  the 
Confederate  States  except  Tennessee  at  once  refused  to  ratify  it, 
but  afterwards  ratified  it  as  the  condition  of  re-admission  into  the 
Union.  The  fifteenth  amendment,  adopted  in  1869,  supple- 
mented the  fourteenth,  guaranteeing  the  right  of  suffrage,  with- 
out regard  to  race,  color,  or  previous  condition  of  servitude. 

American  Caesar,  The.  (See  Presidents  of  the  United 
States.) 

American  Carrying  Trade.     (See  Shipbuilding.) 
American  Cato.      (See  Nicknames  of  Famous  Americans.) 
American  Chatham.    (See  Nicknames  of  Famous  Americans.) 
American  FabillS.     (See  Presidents  of  the  United  States.) 
American  FJag.     (See  Flags  of  the  United  States.) 
American  Knights.     (See  Political  Parties.) 
American  Louis  Phillipe.      (See   Presidents  of   the  United 
States.) 

Americans  Must  Light  the  Lamps  of  Industry  and  Econ- 
omy. (See  Sayings  of  Famous  Americans.) 


44  ARIZONA. 

American  Party.     (See  Political  Parties.) 
Ancestry,   etc.,   of  Presidents.      (See  Presidents  of  the 
United  States.). 

Ancient  Mariner  of  the  Wabash.  (See  Nicknames  of  Fa- 
mous Americans.) 

Another  County  Heard  From.     (See  Slang  of  Politics.) 
Anti-Federalists.     (See  Political  Parties.) 
Anti-Masonic  Party.     (See  Political  Parties.) 
Anti-Monopoly  Party.     (See  Political  Parties.) 
Anti-Nebraska  Party.     (See  Political  Parties.) 
Anti-Poverty  Society.     (See  Political  Parties.) 
Anti-Slavery  Party.     (See  Political  Parties.) 
Arbor  Day.     (See  .Forestry.) 

Area  of  the  United  States,  and  of  States.  (See  Popula- 
tion and  Area.) 

Aristocrats.      (See  Political  Parties.) 

Arizona. —  Arizona  was  part  of  the  Mexican  cession  and  the 
Gadsden  purchase.  It  was  settled  in  1685,  by  the  Spainards.  It 
was  annexed  to  the  United  States  in  1848.  It  is  remarkable  for 
vast  plateaus,  3,000  to  7,000  feet  high,  for  deep  canons  and 
arid  plains.  The  Colorado  River,  which  separates  Arizona  from 
California,  is  a  mighty  stream  having  a  channel  1,100  miles  long, 
and  passing  through  a  series  of  deep  chasms,  with  walls  of  mar- 
ble and  granite  from  1,000  to  6,500  feet  high. 

The  State  has  many  Natural  Wonders,  and  is  a  favorite 
resort  of  those  who  are  in  search  of  the  wild  and  picturesque  in 
nature.  The  Chief  Resources  are  mineral.  The  output  of 
her  mines  has  exceeded  $80,000,000  ;  the  output  of  silver  has 
been  over  $5,000,000  yearly.  The  silver  mines  of  Tombstone  have 
produced  $33,000,000  in  the  metal,  since  1878.  There  are  rich 
copper  deposits,  the  exports  having  reached  $4,000,000  in  a  year. 
The  agriculture  of  Arizona  is  conducted  by  means  of  artificial 
irrigation.  The  fruit  product  includes  oranges,  lemons,  peaches, 
limes,  figs,  olives,  and  dates. 

The  Population  in  1880  was  40,440  ;  in  1890,  it  was  59,691. 
The  territorial  debt  was  $769,000  ;  the  value  of  assessed  property 
was  $26,000,000.  Phoenix,  the  capital,  is  situated  in  an  oasis 
made  by  irrigation.  There  were  in  1890,  1,097  miles  of  railroads, 
and  the  school  attendance  was  4,702.  There  were  26  newspapers. 
The  chief  cities  are  Tucson,  with  5,095  inhabitants ;  Phoenix, 
with  4,000  ;  and  Tombstone,  with  2,000.  The  Governor  of  the 
Territory  is  John  N.  Irwin,  whose  term  expires  September  1, 1894. 


ARKANSAS. 


45 


GREAT   SEAL  OK  ARKANSAS. 


Arkansas. — The  region  was  first  visited  by  white  men  belong- 
ing to  De  Soto's  expedition  in  1541. 
Frenchmen  established  the  first 
settlement  at  Arkansas  Post,  1686. 
It  was  part  of  the  Louisiana  Pur- 
chase and  was  admitted  as  a  State- 
in  1830.  Eastern  Arkansas  is  flat, 
while  the  western  part  is  an  elevated 
plain. 

The  Arkansas  River,  rising 
in  the  Rockies,  flows  through  Colo- 
rado and  Kansas,  and  thence  south- 
east through  the  Indian  Territory 
and  Arkansas,  to  its  junction  with 
the  Mississippi  at  Napoleon.  It  has 
a  course  within  the  State  of  five  hundred  miles.  The  Red,  St. 
Francis,  White  and  Ouachita  rivers  are  all  large  streams  and  of 
much  service  in  commerce.  The  Mississippi,  here  of  great  width, 
washes  the  eastern  boundary  of  Arkansas,  and  gives  it  an  addi- 
tional water  frontage  of  nearly  four  hundred  miles. 

Steam  boa  ting  is  carried  on  on  all  the  rivers,  the  navigable 
length  of  which  is  over  3,200  miles.  Agriculture  is  the  chief 
industry,  there  being  upwards  of  100,000  larms,  producing 
500,000  bales  of  cotton,  800,000  bushels  of  sweet  potatoes, 
1,200,000  pounds  of  tobacco,  40,000,000  bushels  of  corn,  1,800,000 
bushels  of  wheat,  and  4,500,000  bushels  of  oats.  Sorghum, 
molasses,  and  fruit  are  also  produced*  The  live  stock  is  worth 
over  $20,000,000,  including  700,000  cattle,  27 5,000  sheep,  1,500,- 
000  swine,  and  300,000  horses  and  mules.  The  Timber  Lands 
cover  nearly  30,000  square  miles,  yielding  yellow-pine,  p«>plar. 
walnut,  cypress,  oaks,  hickory,  cherry,  etc.,  the  product  being 
worth  $20,000,000  in  a  year.  The  minerals  have  not  yet  been 
developed,  but  are  found  in  great  variety.  The  output  of  coal 
is  about  300,000  tons  in  a  year.  Building  stones,  zinc,  marbles, 
manganese,  some  copper,  and  other  minerals  are  found.  The 
most  notable  feature  of  the  State  are  the  Hot  Springs,  which 
lie  in  a  gorge  in  the  mountains  two  hours'  ride  from  Little  Rock. 
The  Arkansas  Industrial  University  at  Little  Rock  provides  for 
beneficiary  students  of  both  sexes,  having  several  hundred 
scholars.  Manual  and  military  training  is  an  important  branch 
of  the  curriculum.  There  are  upwards  of  a  dozen  other  higher 
educational  institutions.  The  appropriations  for  schools  aggre- 
gate $1,016,000,  the  average  daily  attendance  being  148,714. 
The  population  of  Arkansas  in  1880  was  802,525,  of  whom 
210,666  were  colored ;  in  1890,  the  population  was  1,125,385. 


46 


ABMY    OF    THE    UNITED    STATES. 


The  real  property  was  valued  (1888)  at  $78,000,000.  The 
personal  property  at  $48,000,000  ;  the  manufactures  were  valued 
.at  $7,000,000,  the  farm  lands  (12,061,000  acres)  were  valued  at 
$74,240,000,  their  products  at  $45,000,000;  there  were  in  1890, 
2,195  miles  of  railroad  and  in  1892,  198  newspapers. 

Little  Rock,  the  chief  city  and  the  capital,  has  a  business- 
like appearance,  broad  streets  well  paved,  several  fine  buildings, 
and  has  a  trade  aggregating  $25,000,000  in  a  year.  The  State 
House,  Little  Rock  University,  the  United  States  Court  House, 
the  Post-Office  and  Custom  House,  and  the  Arsenal  are  the  more 
notable  buildings.  The  population  in  1890  was  22,  43(1.  Fort 
Smith  (population  11,291)  is  the  second  city.  It  is  on  the  Upper 
Arkansas,  and  'is  a  railroad  centre.  Pine  Bluff  is  a  shipping 
centre  on  the  Arkansas  River,  with  a  population  of  9,952. 

The  Governor  of  Arkansas  is  James  P.  Eagle  (Democrat). 
His  term  expires  Jan.  15,  1893.  The  State  is  Democratic. 

Arm-iii-Arni  Convention.     (See  Political  Parties.) 
Army,  the  United  States. 


Departments, 
Soldiers'   Homes, 
Organization, 

Grand  Army, 


West  Point  Academy, 
U.  S.  A.  Commanders, 
National  Cemeteries, 
Salaries,  Militia. 

The  headquarters  of  the  United  States  annv  are  at 
Washington,  D.  C.     The    President  of    the'  United 
States  is  Commander-in-Chief.     The  rank 
of  General,  which  is  the  highest  possible    rank, 
was  bestowed  upon  General  Grant  after  he  haft 
been  Lieutenant-General.    Lieut.-Gen.  Philip  H. 
Sheridan  was  also  made  a  general,  but  the  title 
expired  on   the   death  of  Sheridan  in  1888. 
The   officer  commanding  the  armv  in   1892 
0$  is  Maj.-Gen.  John  M.  Schofield,  head- 
quarters at  Washington,  D.  C.     There  are 
by  law   two   other  major-generals,  Oliver  O. 
Howard,  commanding  the  Department  of  the 
East,   headquarters    at    Governor's    Island,    in 
New  York  Harbor,  and  Nelson  A.  Miles,  com- 
manding  the    Department    of    the    Missouri, 
headquarters   at   Chicago,  111.     There    are  six 
brigadier-generals,  as  follows:  — 

THE  GARRISON  FLAG.  Thomas  II.  Ruger,  Department  of  Califor- 
nia ;  Wesley  Merritt,  Department  of  Dakota  ; 
David  S.  Stanley,  Department  of  Texas ;  John  R,  Brooke,  Depart- 
ment of  the  Platte  ;  A.  McD.  McCook,  Department  of  Arizona  ; 
A.  V.  Kautz,  Department  of  the  Columbia. 


ARMY    OF    THE    UNITED    STATES.  47 

The  other  principal  officers  are  :  — 

Adjutant-General,  Brigadier-General,  John  C.  Kelton. 

Quartermaster-General,  „  Richard  N".  Baehelder. 

Paymaster-General, 
Commissary-General, 


Surgeon-General, 
Chief  Signal  Officer, 
Chief  of  Engineers, 
Inspector-General, 


William  Smith. 
Beekman  Du  Barry. 
C.  Sutherland. 
Adolphus  W.  Greely. 
Thomas  L.  Casey. 
Jos.  C.  Breckinridge. 


Acting  Judge  Advocate-General,  Colonel,  Guido  X.  Lieber. 

Salaries. —  The  salaries  of  army  officers  are  as  follows  :  — 

Pay  During  First  5  Years       Maximum 
of  Service.  Pay. 

Lieutenant-General $11,000  $15,400 

Major-General 7,500  10,500 

Brigadier-General "  .  .  .  .  5,500  7,700 

Colonel 3,500  4,500 

Lieutenant-Colonel 3,000  4,000 

Major 2,500  3,500 

Captain,  mounted 2,000  2,800 

Captain,  not  mounted 1,800  2,520 

First  Lieutenant,  mounted 1,600  2,240 

First  Lieutenant,  not  mounted 1,500  2,100 

Second  Lieutenant 1,400  1,960 

t 

The  pay  is  graded,  according  to  years  of  active  service,  being 
increased  at  the  rate  of  ten  per  cent,  for  every  five  years 
of  service  until  after  twenty  years'  service  the  maximum  is 
reached ;  in  the  case  of  colonels  and  lieutenant-colonels  the 
maximum  is  fixed  somewhat  lower.  Officers  are  allowed  mileage 
at  the  rate  of  eight  cents  a  mile  for  every  mile  travelled  under 
orders.  The  pay  of  the  men  is  graded  from  $18  a  month  and 
rations,  for  the  first  two  years,  to  $'21  a  month  and  rations  after 
twenty  years'  service.  The  retired  list  of  the  army  is  limited  to 
four  hundred  officers,  four  of  whom  are  major-generals,  and 
thirty-four  are  brigadier-generals. 

Organization  of  the  Army.  —  The  army  of  the  United 
States,  in  1890,  consisted  of  the  following  forces,  in  officers  and 
men  :  — 

Officers.       Enlisted  Men.       Aggregate. 

Ten  cavalry  regiments 432  6,050  6,482 

Five  artillery  regiments     ....         282  3,675  3,957 

Twenty-five  infantry  regiments     .          877  12,125  13,002 

Engineer  Battalion,  recruiting  par- 
ties, ordnance  department,  hos- 
pital service,  Indian  scouts, 
West  Point,  Signal  detachment, 
and  general  service 579  3,370  3,949 

Total 2,170  25,220  27,390 


48 


ARMY  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 


The  United  States  are  divided  into  eight  military  departments, 
as  follows :  —  Department  of  the  East:  New  England  States, 
New  York,  New  Jersey,  Pennsylvania,  Delaware,  Maryland,  Vir- 
ginia, West  Virginia,  North  Carolina,  South  Carolina,  Georgia, 
Florida,  Louisiana,  Mississippi,  Alabama,  Kentucky,  Tennessee, 
Ohio,  and  the  District  of  Columbia.  Department  of  the  Mis- 
souri :  Michigan,  Wisconsin,  Indiana,  Illinois,  Missouri,  Kan- 
sas, Arkansas,  Indian  and  Oklahoma  Territories.  Department 
of  California  :  California  (excepting  that  portion  south  of  the 
35th  parallel)  and  Nevada.  Department  of  Dakota  :  Min- 
nesota, South  Dakota  (excepting  so  much  as  lies  south  of  the  44th 
parallel),  North  Dakota,  Montana,  and  the  post  of  Fort  Yellow- 
stone, Wyo.  Department  of  Texas  :  State  of  Texas.  De- 
partment of  the  Platte  :  Iowa,  Nebraska,  Colorado,  and 
Wyoming  (excepting  the  post  of  Fort  Yellowstone,  Wyo.), 


Army.   No..  I. 


No.  2. 


No.  3. 


.No.  4. 


, 

~iiii'£f^'*S-S3Si£  \ 


No.  5. 


||!:> 

4  *  $  - 

1 '!•««« 


No.  7.  No.  8.  Mo.  9. 

SHOULDER    STRAPS    OF    UNITED    STATES    ARMY. 

No.  1.  —  General  of  the  Army.  No.  2.  — Lieutenant-General.  No.  3.  —  Major-General. 
No.  4.  —  Brigadier-General.  No.  5.  —  Colonel.  No.  C.  —  Lieutenant-Colonel  (silver  leaf) 
and  Major  (gold  leaf).  No.  7.  — Captain.  No.  8. —First  Lieutenant..  No.  9. —  Second 
Lieutenant. 

Utah,  part  of  Idaho,  and  so  much  of  South  Dakota  as  lies  south 
of  the  44th  parallel.  Department  of  Arizona  :  Arizona  and 
New  Mexico,  and  California  south  of  the  35th  parallel.  De- 
partment of  the  Columbia  :  Oregon,  Washington,  Idaho, 
and  Alaska,  excepting  so  much  of  Idaho  as  is  embraced  in  the 
Department  of  the  Platte. 

West  Point  Military  Academy. — The  United  States  Mili- 
tary Academy  at  West  Point  (New  York)  has  graduated  3,500 


ARMY    OP    THE    UNITED    STATES. 


49 


officers  for  the  array.  Post-graduate  schools  for  officers  are  in 
operation  at  Fort  Monroe,  Virginia  (for  artillery),  and  at  Fort 
Leaven  worth,  Kansas  (for  cavalry  and  infantry).  Up  to  the 
year  1861,  West  Point  had  graduated  1,966  officers,  of  whom 
1,249  were  then  living.  Three  fourths  of  these  fought  in  the 
armies  of  the  Union,  including  162  from  the  insurgent  South 
(nearly  half  of  the  Southern  graduates).  West  Point  was  chosen 
by  Washington  for  the  site  of  a  National  Military  School, 
which  opened  in  1812.  Every  Congressional  district  is  entitled 
to  send  here  one  youth,  physically  perfect,  and  well  grounded  in 
elementary  studies.  Cadets  receive  $540  a  year  for  four  years, 
with  a  discipline  and  instruction  unequalled  elsewhere  in  America 
for  exaction  and  thoroughness.  The  graduates  enter  upon  the 
rank  and  pay  of  second  lieutenants  of  the  regular  army,  and  are 
sent  to  the  frontiers.  There  are  three  hundred  cadets,  in  a 
battalion  of  four  companies,  uniformed  in  gray ;  and  they  pass 
two  months  of  each  year  in  camp,  and  ten  months  in  barracks. 

Commanders  of  the  United  States  Army.  (1775  to 
1892.) — The  commanders  (under  the  President  as  Commander-in- 
Chief)  of  the  United  States  Army  from  the  Revolution  to  the 


NEW     YORK     HARBOR.      FORT    WADSWORTH     ON    STATEN    ISLAND. 

present  time  have  been  as  follows  :  — • 

Major-General  George  Washington,  June  15,  1775,  to  Decem- 
ber 23,  1783;  Major-General  Henry  Knox,  December  23,  1783, 
to  June  2, 1784,  disbanded  ;  Lieutenant-Colonel  Josiah  Harmer 
(General-in-chief  by  brevet,  July  31,  1787),  June  3,  1784,  to 
March  4,  1791  ;  Major-General  Arthur  St.  Clair,  March  4,  1791, 
to  March  5,  1792;  Major-General  Anthony  Wayne,  March  5, 
1792,  to  December  15,  1796;  Major-General  James  Wilkinson, 
December  15,  1796,  to  July  2,  1798  ;  Lieutenant-General  George 
Washington,  July  3,  1798,  to  March  3,  1799 ;  General  George 
Washington,  March  3, 1799,  to  December  14, 1799  ;  Major-General 
Alexander  Hamilton,  December  15,  1799,  to  June  15,  1800 ; 
Brigadier-General  James  Wilkinson,  June  15,  1800,  to  January 
27,  1812  ;  Major-General  Henry  Dearborn,  January  27,  1812, 
to  June  15,  1815  ;  Major-General  Jacob  Brown,  June  15, 


50 


ARMY    OF    THE    UNITED    STATES. 


to  February  24,  1828  ;  Major-General  Alexander  Macomb,  May 
28,  1828,  to  June  25,  1841  ;  Major-General  Winfield  Scott, 
(Brevet  Lieutenant-General),  July  5, 1841,  to  November  C,  18G1  ; 
Major-General  George  Brinton  McClellan,  November  1,  1861,  to 
March  11,  1862  ;  Major-General  Henry  Wager  Halleck,  July  28, 
1862;  to  March  12,1864;  Lieutenant-General  Ulysses  Simpson 
Grant,  March  12,  1864,  to  July  25,  1866;  General  Ulysses 
Simpson  Grant,  July  25,  1866,  to  March  4,  1869;  General  Wil- 
liam Tecumseh  Sherman,  March  5,  1869,  to  November  1,  1883  ; 
Lieutenant-General  Philip  Henry  Sheridan,  November  1,  1883, 


FOKT  GARLAND,  COLORADO. 


to  June  1,  1888;  General  Philip  Henry  Sheridan,  June  1,  1888, 
to  August  5,  1888 ;  Major-General  John  McAllister  Schofield, 

August  14,  1888,  to  

Soldiers'  Homes The  Civil  War  left  thousands  of  regular 

army  and  volunteer  soldiers  disabled  for  work  on  account  of 
injuries  received  or  disease  contracted.  To  provide  for  the 
sustenance  of  these  men  the  government  maintains  the  United 
States  Home  for  regular  army  soldiers,  and  the  National  Home  for 


AKMV    OF    THE    UNITED    STATES. 


51 


disabled  volunteer  soldiers,  the  latter  having  seven  branches.  The 
benefits  of  the  former  are  open  to  all  regular  army  men  who  have 
served  twenty  years,  or  to  any  who  have  been  disabled  or  in- 
capacitated for  further  service  while  in  the  line  of  duty.  The 
inmates  are  fed  well,  and  comfortably  clothed,  and  receive 
medical  attendance  when  needed.  Over  1,200  men  are  now  in- 
mates of  the  Home. 

The  National  Home  for  Disabled  Volunteer  Soldiers 
is  located  at  Washington,  D.  C.,  and  is  open  to  the  disabled 
volunteer  soldiers  and  sailors  of  the  United  States,  whether  of  the 
Mexican  or  the  Civil  Wars.  Clothing,  sustenance,  religious 
instruction,  and  amusements  are  provided  by  the  government. 
Admission  to  the  Home  is  not  open  to  pensioners  who  receive  $16 
a  month  or  more.  Only  sojdiers  or  sailors  who  have  been 
honorably  discharged  or  who  are  disabled  from  service  are 


luutCoifftitl. 


THE     MILITARY     SERVICE    OF    THE    UNITED     STATES. 


admitted.  There  are  branches  of  the  Home  at  Dayton,  O.,  Mil- 
waukee, Wis.,  Togus,  Me.,  Hampton,  Va.,  Leaven  worth,  Kan., 
Santa  Monica,  Cal.,  and  Marion,  Ind.  The  total  average  number 
of  inmates  in  the  National  Homes  is  17,528;  the  average  age  of 
inmates  is  57  years ;  the  average  cost  of  maintenance  per  man  is 
$139.50.  Besides  the  National  Homes,  there  are  Homes  sup- 
ported by  eighteen  States.  '  The  States  supporting  such  Homes 
are  California,  Connecticut,  Illinois,  Iowa,  Kansas,  Massachusetts, 
Michigan,  Minnesota,  Nebraska,  New  Hampshire,  New  Jersey, 
New  York,  Ohio,  Pennsvlvania,  Rhode  Island,  South  Dakota, 


52  ARMY    OF    THE    UNITED    STATES. 

Vermont,  and  Wisconsin.     The  total  number  of  inmates  supported 
by  the  State  Homes  is  5,292. 

National  Cemeteries. — The  nation's  dead  number  300,000 
men,  whose  graves  are  in  seventy-nine  National  Cemeteries,  many 
of  which  are  in  the  South.  Among  the  principal  ones  in  the 
North  are  Cypress  Hills,  Brooklyn,  N.  Y.,  with  3,786  dead; 
Finn's  Point,  N.  J.,  which  contains  the  remains  of  2,644  unknown 
dead;  Gettysburg,  Pa.,  with  its  1,967  known  and  1,608  unknown 
dead;  Mound  City,  111.,  with  2,505  known  and  2,721  un- 
known graves;  Philadelphia,  with  1,909  dead,  and  Woodlawn, 
Elmira,  N.  Y.,  with  its  3,090  dead.  In  the  South,  near  the 
scenes  of  terrible  conflicts,  are  located  the  largest  depositories  of 
the  nation's  heroic  dead : 

Arlington,  Va.,  16,264,  of  whom  4,349  are  unknown  ;  Beaufort, 
S.  C,  9,241,  of  whom  4,493  are  unknown  ;  Chalmette,  La.,  12,511, 
of  whom  5,674  are  unknown;  Chattanooga,  Tenn.,  12,902,  of 
whom  4,963  are  unknown ;  Fredericksburg,  Va.,  15,257,  of  whom 
12,770  are  unknown;  Jefferson  Barracks,  Mo.,  11,490,  of  whom 
2,906  are  unknown ;  Little  Rock,  Ark.,  5,602,  of  whom  2,337  are 
unknown;  City  Point,  Va.,  5,122,  of  whom  1,374  are  unknown  ; 
Marietta,  Ga.,  10,151,  of  whom  2,963  are  unknown;  Memphis, 
Tenn.,  13,997,  of  whom  8,817  are  unknown ;  Nashville,  Tenn., 
16,526,  of  whom  4,701  are  unknown;  Poplar  Grove,  Va.,  6,199, 
of  whom  4,001  are  unknown  ;  Richmond,  Va.,  6,542,  of  whom 
5,700  are  unknown  ;  Salisbury,  N.  C.,  12,126,  of  whom  12,032  are 
unknown  ;  Stone  River,  Tenn.,  5,602,  of  whom  288  are  unknown  ; 

Vicksburg,  Miss.,  16,600,  of 
whom  12,704  are  unknown  ; 
Antietam,  Va.,  4,671,  of 
whom  1,818  are  unknown ; 
Winchester,  Va.,  4,559,  of 
whom  2,365  are  unknown. 

T  w  o  cemeteries  are 
mainly  devoted  to  the  brave 
men  who  perished  in  the 
loathsome  prisons  of  the 
same  name  — Andersonville, 

.  ' 

Ga.,  which  contains  13,714 
graves,  and  Salisbury,  with  its  12,126  dead,  of  whom  12,032  are 
unknown. 

Militia  of  the  United  States. —  The  Fathers  of  the  Con- 
stitution  were  quick  to  appreciate  the  importance  to  the  protection 
of  the  government  of  a  well-organized  militia.  In  the  early  years 
of  the  Republic,  when  there  was  no  standing  army,  naturally  more 
anxiety  was  felt  on  this  subject  than  now,  yet  if  the  population 


ARMT    OF    THE    UNITED    STATES.  53 

of  the  country  and  its  military  resources  have  since  then  enor 
mously  increased,  steam  transportation  and  other  changes  have 
as  obviously  augmented  the  facilities  for  bringing  here  an  invad- 
ing army.  Washington,  in  his  message  of  1790,  laid  down  the 
rule  that  "a  free  people  ought  not  only  to  be  Armed,  but 
Disciplined,"  while  his  succeeding  message  declared  the  militia 
to  be  "  an  object  of  primary  importance,  whether  viewed  in  ref- 
erence to  the  national  security,  to  the  satisfaction  of  the  commu- 
nity, or  to  the  preservation  of  order." 

In  his  message  of  1794  he  declared  that  "  the  devising  and 
establishing  of  a  well-regulated  militia  would  be  a  genuine  source 
of  legislative  honor,  and  a  perfect  title  to  public  gratitude." 

Jefferson,  in  his  inaugural  address,  declared  a  well-disciplined 
militia  to  be  "  our  best  Reliance  in  Peace  and  for  the  first 
moments  of  war  till  regulars  may  relieve  them."  Madison  in  his 
first  message  declared  the  militia  to  be  "  the  great  Bulwark  of 
Our  Security  and  re- 
source  of  our  power." 
Both  Monroe  and 
John  Quincy  Adams 
in  their  messages  to 
Congress  emphasized 
the  importance  to  the 
country  of  the  militia. 
Jackson  took  the  view  FORT  pICKENs  PEOTACOLA. 

that  the  great  body  of 

a  patriotic  people  was  ample  protection  in  case  of  war,  and 
pointed  out  weaknesses  in  the  militia  system.  While  the  Con- 
stitution provided  for  the  establishment  of  the  militia,  with  the 
President  as  commander-in-chief,  there  was  for  some  time  a  con- 
troversy as  to  exactly  what  authority  the  government  possessed 
over  it.  Being  organized  under  State  laws,  there  was  some  ques- 
tion whether  the  militia  was  subject  to  the  same  regulations, 
while  enlisted  in  the  army  of  the  Union,  as  were  the  regular 
troops. 

It  was  also  questioned  whether  the  President  could  delegate 
his  authority  as  commander-in-chief  to  the  commanding  officer  of 
the  army.  However,  these  questions  settled  themselves  when 
once  the  militia  took  up  arms  for  the  Union,  its  members,  officers, 
and  men,  quickly  submitting  to  the  discipline  governing  the 
regular  troops. 

The  Militia  to-day  enjoys  a  high  proficiency,  and  while  to  a 
certain  extent,  the  organization  is  attractive  to  young  men  by 
reason  of  its  opportunities  for  social  pleasures,  yet  it  takes  the 
place  of  a  standing  army  very  satisfactorily.  The  perform- 


54  ARMY  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

ances  of  the  militia  during  the  Civil  War,  especially  in  the  ex- 
cellent material  it  developed  in  the  way  of  officers,  is  convincing 
proof  of  its  value.  The  tendency  of  the  government  is  to  encour- 
age the  militia  to  become  more  perfect,  and  also  to  make  the 
knowledge  of  military  tactics  a  part  of  the  educational  system  in 
the  schools  and  colleges.  The  War  Department  has  upwards  of 
fifty  officers  stationed  at  institutions  of  learning,  for  the  purpose 
of  giving  instruction  in  the  military  science.  By  the  records  of 
the  War  Department,  it  appears  that  in  October  1,  1891,  there 
were  enlisted  in  the  militia  of  the  States  and  Territories  101,981 
men,  of  whom  92,203  were  in  the  infantry,  4,554  in  the  cavalry, 
and  5,224  in  the  artillery,  besides  9,311  commissioned  officers. 
The  State  of  New  York  leads  with  12,957  men,  Pennsylvania  is 
second  with  7,747,  Ohio  third  with  4,736,  South  Carolina  fourth 
with  4,704,  Massachusetts  fifth  with  4,615,  New  Jersey  sixth  with 
3,989,  California  seventh  with  3,954,  Illinois  eighth  with  3,722, 
and  Georgia  ninth  with  3,656.  All  the  States  and  Territories 
except  Utah  have  a  militia  organization. 

The  Grand  Army  of  the  Republic. —  To  Illinois  belongs 
the  credit  of  organizing  the  first  Grand  Army  post.  This  oc- 
curred in  1866,  at  Decatur.  The  movement  grew  rapidly,  and 
to-day  there  are  posts  in  all  the  States.  Auxiliary  posts  for  the 
sons  and  the  wives  of  veterans  have  been  organized  also,  and 
have  a  large  membership.  The  total  enrolment  of  the  Grand 
Army  of  the  Republic  on  June  30,  1891,  was  398,270  men.  The 
posts  of  each  State  and  Territory  are  organized  into  a  depart- 
ment, and  the  departments  are  officered  by  a  commander-in-chief, 
and  a  national  council  of  administration  consisting  of  one  mem- 
ber from  each  State  and  Territory. 

The  Objects  of  the  organization  were  outlined  as  follows, 
when  the  national  organization  was  perfected  at  Indianapolis, 
Ind.,  Nov.  20,  1866  :  —  1,  To  preserve  and  strengthen  those  kind 
and  fraternal  feelings  which  bind  together  the  soldiers,  sailors, 
and  marines  who  united  to  suppress  the  late  Rebellion,  and  to 
perpetuate  the  history  and  memory  of  the  dead.  2,  To  maintain 
true  allegiance  to  the  United  States  of  America,  based  upon  a 
paramount  respect  for  and  fidelity  to  the  national  Constitution 
and  laws,  to  discountenance  whatever  tends  to  weaken  loyalty, 
incites  to  insurrection,  treason,  and  rebellion,  or  in  any  manner 
impairs  the  efficiency  and  permanency  of  our  free  institutions, 
and  to  encourage  the  spreaxi  of  universal  liberty,  equal  rights,  and 
justice  to  all  men.  Finally  the  organization  aims  to  help  the 
widows  and  orphans  of  soldiers  or  sailors  who  lost  their  lives  in 
the  service,  and  to  assist  such  former  comrades-in-arms  as  need 
help  and  protection.  At  the  Indianapolis  meeting,  Gen.  Stephen 


ARMY  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 


55 


A.  Hurlbut,  of  Illinois,  was  chosen  as  commander-in-chlef,  and 
Dr.  Stephenson,  who  organized  the  first  post,  was  chosen  as 
adjutant-general.  Eligible  as  members  of  the  Grand  Army  of 
the  Republic  are  all  soldiers  and  sailors  of  the  United  States 
Army,  Navy,  and  Marine  Corps  between  April  1'J,  1861,  and 
April  9,  1865,  who  were  honorably  discharged,  and  the  members 
of  such  State  regiments  as  were  called  into  service.  In  1869, 
when  it  was  asserted  that  the  G.  A. R.  was  apolitical  organization, 
a  decree  was  issued  at  the  annual  encampment  against  the  use  of 
the  organization  by  the  members  for  partisan  purposes. 

The  National    Encampments   and  Commanders-in-Chief 
have  been  as  follows:  1866  —  Indianapolis,    Stephen  A.  lliuibut, 


LIBBT    PRISON. 


111.;  1868— Philadelphia,  John  A.  Logan,  111.;  1869  — Cincin- 
nati, John  A.  Logan,  111. ;  1870  —  Washington,  John  A.  Logan, 
111.;  1871  —  Boston,  A.  E.  Burnside,  R.  I.;  1872  —  Cleveland,  A. 
E.  Burnside,  R.  I.;  1873 — New  Haven,  Charles  Devens,  Jr., 
Mass.;  1874  —  Harrisburg,  Chas.  Devens,  Jr.,  Mass.;  1875  — 
Chicago,  John  F.  Hartranft,  Pa.;  1876  —  Philadelphia,  John  F. 
Hartranft,  Pa.;  1877  —  Providence,  J.  C.  Robinson,  N.  Y.; 
1878  —  Springfield,  Mass.,  J.  C.  Robinson,  N.  Y.;  1879  - 
Albany,  William  Earnshaw,  O.;  1880  —  Dayton,  O.,  Louis 
Wagner,  Pa.;  1881  — Indianapolis,  George  S.  Merrill,  Mass.; 


56  ARTICLES    OF    CONFEDERATION. 

1882  —  Baltimore,  Paul  Van  Der  Voort,  Neb.;  1883  —  Denver, 
Robert  B.  Beath,  Pa.;  1884  —  Minneapolis,  John  S.  Kuntz,  O.; 
1885  —  Portland,  Me.,  S.  S.  Burdette,  Wash.;  188G  —  San  Fran- 
cisco, Lucius  Fairchild,  Wis.;  1887 — St.  Louis,  John  P.  Rae, 
Minn.;  1888 — Columbus,  O.,  William  Warner,  Mo.;  1889- 
Milwaukee,  Wis.,  Russell  A.  Alger,  Mich.;  1890  —  Boston, 
Mass.,  Wheelock  G.  Veazey,  Vt.;  1891  —  Detroit,  Mich.,  John 
Palmer,  New  York. 

The  notable  feature  of  the  annual  encampment  of  the  G.  A.  R. 
is  a  parade,  participated  in  by  upwards  of  35,000  Union  veterans 
from  all  the  States,  many  of  them  aged  men,  marching  with  their 
tattered  battleflags,  to  the  old  familiar  martial  airs.  Such  a 
spectacle  never  fails  to  inflame  with  the  spirit  of  patriotism  the 
workaday  population  of  the  city  in  which  the  encampment  is  held. 
The  day  is  a  general  holiday,  business  being  practically  suspended. 
Great  crowds  of  people  from  the  surrounding  country  come  to 
witness  the  spectacle. 

Articles  Of  Confederation. —  The  name  given  to  the  docu- 
ment which  united  the  colonies  in  1776,  and  under  which  they 
were  governed  until  the  Constitution  was  adopted.  These 
articles  were  weakly  constructed  and  inadequate,  and  gave  the 
government  no  power  to  enforce  its  own  commands,  and  not  even 
to  raise  revenue.  The  debt,  principal,  and  interest,  fell  into 
arrears,  the  soldiers  of  the  Revolution  remained  unpaid,  and 
Congress  could  not  even  induce  the  States  to  give  it  power  to 
retaliate  on  nations  bent  on  ruining  our  trade.  The  attendance 
of  members  in  Congress  grew  smaller  and  smaller,  and  it  required 
an  especial  appeal  to  have  the  quorum  necessary  for  the  ratifica- 
tion of  the  treaty  of  peace  with  Great  Britain.  The  weakness  of 
these  articles  led  to  the  framing  of  the  Constitution. 

Assay  Offices.     (See  Coinage,  Free  Coinage,  etc.) 

Associated  Press.     (See  Newspapers.) 

Associated  Youth.      (See  Political  Parties.) 

Asylum  for  the  Oppressed  of  Every  Nation.  (See  Sayings 

of  Famous  Americans.) 

Atlas  Of  America,  The.  (See  Presidents  of  the  United 
States.) 

Australian  Ballot.     (See  Ballot  Reform.) 

Ballot  Reform. —  In  the  past  four  years  a  new  system  of  vot- 
ing at  elections  has  been  introduced,  and  has  so  much  to  recom- 
mend it  in  the  interest  of  honest  elections  that  over  two  thirds  of 
the  State  legislatures  have  adopted  it  with  several  modifications. 
The  aim  of  the  system,  which  is  known  as  the  Australian 


BALLOT    REFORM. 


57 


System,  is  to  protect  the  voter  from  "influence"  either  of 
employer,  party  boss,  or  "  heeler,"  and  to  secure  absolute  secrecy. 
This  is  provided  for  by  all  the  new  laws  through  the  mechanical 
arrangements  of  booths,  guard-rails,  etc.,  similar  to  those  in  use 
in  England  and  Australia.  There  are  two  methods  of  grouping 
the  names  on  the  tickets  and  both  have  been  tried.  The  first  of 
these  is  the  English,  or  more  properly  the  original  Australian 
style  of  alphabetical  arrangement  of  the  names  of  the  candidates 
under  the  title  of  the  office,  This  is  used  by  the  following  States  : 
California,  Kentucky,  Massachusetts,  Minnesota,  Montana,  Ne- 


TOTINa    THE    AUSTRALIAN    BALLOT. 

braska,  New  Hampshire,  Oregon,  Rhode  Island,  Tennessee,  Ver- 
mont, Washington,  and  Wyoming. 

The  second  is  known  as  the  Belgian  System,  and  consists 
of  grouping  all  nominations  and  offices  by  parties.  It  is  used  in 
Missouri,  Ohio,  Wisconsin,  Delaware,  Illinois,  Indiana,  Iowa, 
Maine,  Maryland,  and  Oklahoma  Territory. 

The  Australian  ballot  was  first  used  in  a  State  election  in 
Massachusetts  in  1888;  in  a  city  election  in  Louisville,  Ky.,  in  the 
same  year.  In  Xew  York  State,  the  Saxton  bill,  which  embodied 
the  principles  of  the  imported  system,  passed  the  legislature  in 
1888,  but  was  vetoed  by  Governor  Hill  on  the  ground  of  uncon- 
st nationality.  In  1890,  a  new  bill  which  was  a  compromise 
became  a  law. 

The  Practical  Operation  of  the  Australian  Ballot,  as  it  was 
adopted  in  Massachusetts,  is  as  follows  :  The  voter  enters  and 


58  BALLOT    REFORM. 

gives  his  name  and  residence  to  the  ballot  clerk,  who  on  finding 
the  voter's  name  on  the  check  list  admits  him  within  the  rail 
and  hands  him  a  ballot.  He  goes  alone  to  one  of  the  voting 
shelves  and  thei-e  unfolds  his  ballot.  He  marks  a  cross  x  in  the 
square  at  the  right  of  the  name  of  each  person  for  whom  he  wishes 
to  vote.  No  other  method  of  marking,  such  as  erasing  names, 
will  answer.  Thus,  if  he  wished  to  vote  for  John  Bowles  for 
Governor,  he  would  mark  his  ballot  in  this  way :  — 


GOVERNOR         

Vote  for  ONE. 

JOHN  BOWLES,  of  Taunton 

Prohibition.  |  X 

THOMAS  E.  MEANS,  of  Boston     . 

.     Democratic.  | 

ELIJAH  SMITH,  of  Pittsfield      . 

Republican.  | 

If  he  wishes  to  vote  for  a  person  Avhose  name  is  not  on  the 
ballot,  he  writes,  or  inserts  by  a  sticker,  the  name  in  the  blank 
line  at  the  end  of  the  list  of  candidates  for  the  office,  and  marks  a 
cross  x  in  the  square  at  the  right  of  it.  Thus,  if  he  wished  to  vote 
for  George  T.  Morton,  of  Chelsea,  for  Governor,  he  would  pre- 
pare his  ballot  in  this  way  :  — 


GOVERNOR 

Vote  for  ONE. 

JOHN  BOWLES,  of  Taunton      . 

Prohibition. 

|   . 

THOMAS  E.  MEANS,  of  Boston     . 

.     Democratic. 

1 

ELIJAH  SMITH,  of  Pittsfield     . 

Republican. 

1 

George  T.  Morton,  of  Chelsea 

1  X 

Leaving  the  voting  shelf,  the  voter  folds  his  ballot,  and  drops 
it  folded  into  the  ballot-box.  As  he  does  so  he  gives  his  name 
and  residence  to  the  officer  in  charge.  The  business  of  voting  is 
thus  entirely  secret.  The  voter  is  not  allowed  to  remain  within 
the  railing  more  than  ten  minutes,  nor  more  than  five  if  other 
voters  are  waiting  their  turn  to  vote.  Nor  is  the  voter  allowed 
to  take  away  with  him  a  soiled  ballot,  nor  one  that  is  perfect. 
Those  who  cannot  read,  or  who  are  blind,  are  assisted  in  marking 
their  ballots  by  the  officer  in  charge. 

Belgian  System  of  Balloting. — By  this  system,  the  names 
of  all  candidates  and  of  the  officers  are  printed  by  groups,  thus  : — 

Democratic.              Republican.  Prohibition.                People's. 

O                                 O  O                                 O 

For  Governor.          For  Governor.  For  Governor.          For  Governor. 

c;  William  Smith,  m  Thomas  Jones,  c;  John  Brown.  ^  Henry  Robinson. 

The  voter  of  a  straight  ticket  marks  a  cross  in  the  circle  at  the 
head  of  his  ticket.  The  voter  who  "  scratches  "  marks  the  squares 
opposite  the  names  of  all  the  candidates  on  the  tickets. 


BANK  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES.  59 

Bachelor  President.     (See  Presidents.) 
Bandanna.     (See  Slang  of  Politics.) 

Bank  of  the  United  States,  The.  (For  Banks,  National 
and  Savings,  See  National  Banks.) — The  project  for  the  estab- 
lishment of  such  a  bank  was  a  hobby  with  Alexander  Ham- 
ilton. It  met  with  great  opposition  from  Jefferson,  Madison,  and 
other  Federalists,  on  the  ground  that  it  was  not  only  unconstitu- 
tional, but  unnecessary.  Hamilton  contended  that  being  a 
sovereign  power,  the  United  States  had  power  to  Charter  a 
Corporation,  but  this  contention  his  opponents  denied.  The 
bill  incorporating  the  bank  was  passed  in  1791,  and  was  signed 
by  Washington.  The  bank  was  to  continue  for  twenty  years, 
with  a  capital  of  $10,000,000,  of  which  $2,000,000  was  to  be 
subscribed  by  the  government.  The  government  was  to  receive 
a  loan  of  $'2,000,000  repayable  in  yearly  instalments  of  $200,000. 
The  Bank  failed  to  secure  a  renewal  of  its  charter,  and  in  1811, 
it  went  out  of  existence. 

A  Second  Bank  of  the  United  States  was  incorporated  in 
1816,  under  nearly  the  same  conditions  as  the  first.  Its  capital 
stock  was  $85,000,000,  payable  one  fifth  in  cash  and  four  fifths  in 
government  stock.  It  was  to  have  the  custody  of  public  funds, 
and  five  of  the  twenty-five  directors  were  to  be  appointed  by  the 
government.  Mismanagement  brought  the  bank  into  a  precarious 
position,  and  the  new  bank  president  was  obliged,  as  a  matter  of 
necessity,  largely  to  curtail  loans.  There  was  a  suspicion  that  the 
bank  had  some  connection  with  politics,  and  a  prejudice  against  it 
was  enkindled  in  the  public  mind.  President  Jackson,  who  never 
approved  of  the  bank,  in  1832  removed  the  government  deposits 
to  State  banks,  which  were  thence  nicknamed  "  Pet  Banks." 
Ultimately  the' bank  became  a  private  institution. 

Barley,  Production  of.     (See  Agriculture.) 
Bar'l,  To  Tap  The.  '  (See  Slang  of  Politics.) 
Barnburners.     (See  Political  Parties.) 
Bee  in  His  Bonnet.     (See  Slang  of  Politics.) 
Beer,  Production  of.     (See  Liquors  and  Tobacco.) 
Belgian  System  of  Voting.     (See  Ballot  Reform.) 
Big  Knife.     (See  Presidents  of  the  United  States.) 
Billion  Congress.     (See  Slang  of  Politics.) 
Bimetallism.     (See  Coinage,  etc.) 

Black  Eagle.      (See  Nicknames  of  Famous  Americans.) 
Black    Friday.      (See    Panics,    Financial.)     When,  on    Sep- 
tember 24,  1869,  "  Jim  "  Fisk  and  Jay  Gould  succeeded  in  corner- 


60  BLACK    FRIDAY. 

ing  the  gold  market,  gold  sold  at  New  York  as  high  as  162^-, 
having  been  quoted  the  evening  before  at  143^.  The  plan  of  the 
speculators  was  to  force  the  price  to  180.  A  panic  seized  the 
stock  market,  all  lines  of  business  were  affected,  many  houses 
went  under,  the  Gold  Board  suspended  business,  and  a  most 
disastrous  condition  of  affairs  was  threatened.  The  Secretary  of 
the  Treasury  came  to  the  rescue  and  put  an  end  to  the  panic  by 
offering  to  sell  $4,000,000  of  gold  to  the,  highest  bidder,  and  to 
redeem  government  bonds  to  the  same  amount.  This  having 
occurred  on  a  Friday,  the  day  has  since  been  known  as  Black 
Friday. 

Black  Republican.      (See  Political  Parties.) 
Elaine  and  Business.     (See  Slang  of  Politics.) 
Bland  Dollar  Profits.     (Coinage,  Free  Coinage,  etc.) 
Bleeding  Kansas.     (See  Slang  of  Politics.) 

Blocks  Of  Five.      (See  Slang  of  Politics.) 

Bloody  Chasm,  To  Bridge  the.     (See  Slang  of  Politics.) 
Bloody  Shirt,  To  Wave  the.     (See  Slang  of  Politics.) 
Bluebacks.     Confederate  currency,  so  called  by  reason  of  its 
appearance,  to  distinguish  it  from  greenbacks. 

Bine  Jeans  Williams.  (See  Nicknames  of  Famous  Ameri- 
cans.) 

Blue  Light  Federalists.      (See  Political  Parties.) 
Blue    Noses.     An    American    nickname    for    Nova    Scotians, 
whose  noses  are  popularly  supposed  to  be  blue,   owing  to  the 
cold  climate. 

Bolter.     (See  Slang  of  Politics.) 
Boodle.      (See  Slang  of  Politics.)  . 

Boom.    Boomer.     (See  Slang  of  Politics.) 

BOSS.     (See  Slang  of  Politics.) 

Boston  Tea  Party,  The. —  The  name  given  to  the  Boston 
men  who  in  1773  seized  three  English  ships,  arrived  in  Boston 
harbor,  and  threw  overboard  their  cargoes  of  tea. 

Boy  Mayor.      (See  Nicknames  of  Famous  Americans.) 

Boys,  The.      (See  Slang  of  Politics.) 

Brahmin  Caste. —  This  was  a  name  frequently  applied  to 
New  England  aristocrats.  When  Charles  Sumner  espoused  the 
cause  of  the  negro,  it  was  said  that  he  did  so  in  the  face  of  the 
opposition  of  the  "  Brahmin  caste  of  New  England,"  who  would 
punish  him  with  social  ostracism. 

Bridges,  Railroad.      (See  Railroads  and  Bridges.) 


CALIFORNIA.  61 

British  Party.     (See  Political  Parties.) 

Brother  Jonathan.—  This  is  a  general  nickname  for  Ameri- 
cans. It  originated  with  General  Washington,  whose  secretary 
and  friend,  Gov.  Jonathan  Trumbull,  of  Connecticut,  gave  the 
commander- in-chief  much  sound  advice.  When  in  doubt, 
Washington  sometimes  would  say,  "  We  must  consult  Brother 
Jonathan."  The  phrase  has  since  become  proverbial. 

Buckwheat,  Production  of.     (See  Agriculture.) 
Buck  Tails.  (See  Political  Parties.) 

Burial  Places  of  Presidents.      (See  Presidents  of  the  U.  S.) 
Burn  This  Letter.      (See  Sayings  of  Famous  Americans.) 
Butter,  Production  of.     (See  Agriculture.) 
Cabinet,  The.      (See  Federal  Government.) 
Caesarism.     (See  Slang  of  Politics.) 

Calico  Charley.      (See  Nicknames  of  Famous  Americans.) 
Caesar  had   his  Brutus,  Charles  I.  His  Cromwell,    and 
George  III.  May  Profit  by    their  Example.     If  That  Be 
Treason,  Make  the  Most  of  It.     (See  Sayings  of  Famous 
Americans.) 

California. —  The  State  was  acquired  by  conquest  from  the 

Mexicans,  in  1848.  It  was  founded 
by  the  Spaniards  in  1769,  the  first 
settlement  being  at  San  Diego;  it 
was  admitted  to  the  Union  in  1840. 
The  Discovery  of  Gold  on 
January  24,  1848,  led  to  an  im- 
mense immigration  from  all  parts 
of  the  world.  It  is  estimated  that 
during  1849  100,000  men  entered 
the  country  from  the  East.  From 
1850  to  1853,  $65,000,000  of  gold 
each  year  was  taken.  At  that 
time  the  State  was  inhabited  by 

GREAT  SEAL  OF  CALIFORNIA.        thousands      of     adventurers,      and 

gambling,    speculation,    crime,    and 

murder,  were  carried  on  with  impunity.  So  barbarous  was  the 
civilization  of  that  period  that  a  Vigilance  Committee  was 
organized  for  the  protection  of  life  and  the  execution  of  the  laws. 
California  remained  true  to  the  Union,  and  gave  seven  regiments 
in  1861  for  its  support. 

The  total  Output  of  Gold  since  1849  has  been  $1,300,000,- 
000  ;  it  is  the  chief  gold-producing  State  of  the  country.  Tht 


62 


CALIFORNIA. 


quick-silver  product  has  exceeded  $70,000,000.  There  are  thirty-six 
large  furnaces  in  active  operation.  Copper,  lead,  and  some  iron 
are  produced.  Borax,  antimony,  petroleum,  coal,  tin,  nickel,  granite, 
sandstone,  marble,  and  onyx,  are  produced  in  abundant  quantity. 
The  wheat  product  is  30,000,000  bushels,  of  barley  16,000,000. 
California  is  one  of  the  foremost  wool-producing  States,  having 
4,000,000  sheep,  giving  35,000,000  pounds  of  fine  fleeces  in  a 
year.  The  Fruit  Industry  has  attained  mammoth  proportions; 
there  are  20,000,000  fruit  trees  in  the  State ;  of  oranges,  lemons, 
limes,  peaches,  and  other  deciduous  fruits,  the  crop  has  reached 
300,000,000  pounds  annually.  Prunes,  pears,  figs,  apricots, 
plums,  olives,  and  nectarines  are  grown  in  large  quantities  and 


STATE    CAPITOL,     SACRAMENTO,    CAL. 

varieties.  The  canning  industry  has  become  a  most  extensive 
one,  fruits  of  all  kinds  being  canned  and  shipped  to  all  parts 
of  the  world.  There  are  several  beet-sugar  factories.  Side  by 
side  with  the  fruit  industry  there  has  grown  up  an  extensive 
business  in  the  production  of  native  wines. 

The  sum  of  $87,000,000  is  invested  in  California  vineyards. 
The  yearly  product  of  wine  is  about  15,000,000  gallons,  with  1,000,- 
000  of  native  brandy.  The  vines  for  the  cultivation  of  vineyards 


CALIFORNIA. 


63 


were  imported  from  Europe  and  Oriental  countries.  There  are 
185,000  acres  planted  with  young  vines,  producing  300,000  tons 
of  grapes  yearly.  The  State  abounds  in  mineral  springs,  which 
are  much  frequented  by  invalids.  It  is  celebrated  for  its  natural 
wonders,  the  chief  of  which  is  the  picturesque  Yosemite  Valley, 
which  is  3,950  feet  above  sea-level,  and  is  hemmed  in  by  perpen- 
dicular cliffs  ;  it  covers  36,011  acres,  and  was  granted  by  Congress 
to  California  for  a  State  park.  The  Yosemite  Falls  descend 
2,600  feet,  1,50<)  in  a  vertical  direction. 

The  Big  Trees  of  California  are  the  loftiest  trees  in  America, 
many  of  them  being  over  300  feet  in  height,  and  from  50  to  100 
feet  in  circumference.  The  population  of  California  in  1870, 
was  560,247  ;  in  1880,  it  was  864,694  ;  in  1890,  it  was  1,204,002. 
The  real  property  in  1888  was  valued  at  $816,000,000;  the 

M       "-• 

fe^JL^ 

-^*f- -~~~  .^-^-— 


CITY     HALL,     SAN     FRANCISCO. 

personal  property  at  $186,000,000.  The  manufactures  amounted 
to  $116,227,973.  The  acreage  of  farm  lands  in  1380  was 
16,593,742,  valued  at  $262,051,282.  The  school  population  in 
1890  was  221,756.  There  were  in  1890,  4,356  miles  of  railroad, 
and  in  1892,  508  newspapers. 

The  Educational  System  of  California  is  one  of  its  proudest 
possessions.  Among  its  more  influential  institutions  are  the 
University  of  California,  at  Berkeley,  and  the  Leland  Stanford, 
Junior,  University,  at  Palo  Alto,  endowed  by  Senator  Stanford  in 
memory  of  his  son,  besides  a  dozen  or  more  sectarian  institutions. 
The  Lick  Observatory,  famous  for  its  astronomical  achievements, 
is  at  Mount  Hamilton.  Many  of  the  California  cities  and  towns 
.support  excellent  libraries. 

San  Francisco,  the  chief  city,  has  a  noble  harbor;  the  bay, 
which  has  seventy  miles  of  navigable  length,  and  a  width  of  three 
to  five  miles,  is  entered  through  the  Golden  Gate,  the  narrows 


64 


CALIFORNIA. 


where  the  sea  runs  in  between  points  of  land.  The  city  has 
many  fine  business  buildings,  some  of  them  rivalling  those  of 
New  York.  Among  the  public  buildings  are  the  California  Acad- 
emy of  Sciences  endowed  by  James  Lick,  the  United  States  Mint, 
the  $4,500,000  City  Hall,  and  the  Public  Libraries.  The  monu- 
ments, the  churches,  the  far-famed  sandlots  of  Denis  Kearney, 
the  Golden  Gate  Park,  covering  1,013  acres,  and  extending  to  the 
ocean,  and  the  wharves  with  their  immense  ships  are  other  feat- 
ures of  the  metropolis  of  the  Pacific.  The  second  city  is  Los 
Angeles,  and  is  noted  as  a  sanitarium.  It  has  beautiful  gardens, 


VIEW    OF    SACRAMENTO. 


and  hotels,  and  villas.  The  population  in  1890  was  50,394. 
Sacramento,  the  capital  (population  in  1890,  26,272),  has  large 
railroad  shops  and  factories.  Oakland  is  third  in  population, 
having  48,540  inhabitants.  The  Governor  of  California  is  II.  IT. 
Markham  (Republican),  whose  term  expires  Jan.  4,  1895.  The 
State  is  Republican. 

Campaign  Expenses.     (See  National  Committee.) 
Campaign  of  Education.     (See  Slang  of  Politics.) 
Campaign    Songs.       (See     Torchlight    Processions.)  —  The 
campaign  songs  of  the  great   political   parties,   in    almost   every 
instance,  have  reflected  the  political  conditions  of  the  times.     It 
would  not  be  difficult  to  trace  the  course  of  political  events  of  the 
past  fifty  years  solely  by  means  of  these  songs,  which  have  been 
marked  not  only  by  witty  thrusts  at  the  political  foibles  of  the 
opposing  candidates,  but  have  expressed  very  intelligently  the 


V 


CAMPAIGN    SONGS. 


65 


issues  upon  which  campaigns  have  been   waged.     For  instance 

the  popular  idea  of  the   military  glory   of   Andrew  Jackson 

can  easily  be  imagined  from  the  following  verse  of  a  song  which 

was    sung  in  the  campaign    of 

1828,    entitled    "The    Hunters 

of  Kentucky  "  :  >^ 

You've  heard,    I    s'pose,  of 

Orleans, 

It's  famed  for  youth  and  beauty, 
There're    girls    of    every    hue,  it 
seems, 


MONTGOMERY 

STREET,     SAN 

FBANCISCO. 


From  snowy  white  to  sooty. 
Now  Packenham  had  made  his  brags, 

If  he  that  day  was  lucky, 
He'd  have  those  girls  and  cotton  bags, 

In  spite  of  Old  Kentucky. 


66  CAMPAIGN    SONGS. 

But  Jackson,  he  was  wide  awake, 

And  was  not  scared  at  trifles, 
For  well  he  knew  Kentucky's  boys, 

With  their  death-dealing  rifles. 
He  led  them  down  to  cypress  swamp, 

The  ground  was  low  and  mucky, 
There  stood  John  Bull  in  martial  pomp, 

And  here  stood  old  Kentucky. 
Chorus.  —  "  Oh!  Kentucky,  the  hunters  of  Kentucky!" 

The  historians  tell  us  that  the  "  Hunters  of  Kentucky  "  were 
so  overpowered  with  the  greatness  of  their  fellow-citizen,  that 
when  he  was  inaugurated  they  came  to  Washington,  many  of 
them  in  native  costume,  together  with  Kentucky  backwoodsmen 
and  Indian  fighters,  and  inyaded  the  President's  reception-room, 
where  they  were  most  effusive  in  their  demonstrations  over  "  Old 
Hickory." 

The  Whig  campaign  of  1840  Avas  as  remarkable  for  the  unusual 
variety  and  spirit  of  its  songs  as  for  its  log  cabins,  bear  skins, 
hard  cider,  and  other  frontier  institutions  dear  to  the  honest 
yeoman's  heart.  Songs  in  praise  of  Tippecanoe  were  marked 
by  a  fervor  like  those  of  the  clans  of  Scotland  sung  in  glorifi- 
cation of  their  chiefs.  They  were  marked  also  by  a  playful 
familiarity,  there  being  in  them  many  allusions  to  "  Old  Tip's  " 
agricultural  and  military  career,  his  achievements  in  either  fiYld 
of  effort  finding  a  sympathetic  spot  in  all  good  Whig  hearts. 
Here  is  the  first  verse  of  a  song  which  is  full  of  the  "  Log 
Cabin  and  Hard  Cider  "  spirit. 

THE    HURRAH    SONG. 

Old  Tip's  the  boy  to  swing  the  flail, 

Hurrah !  Hurrah  !  Hurrah ! 
And  make  the  locos  all  turn  pale, 

Hurrah!  hurrah!  hurrah! 
He'll  give  them  all  a  tarnal  switching, 
When  he  begins  to  "  Clare  de  Kitchen," 

Hurrah,  hurrah,  hurrah,  hurrah,  hurrah,  hurrah! 

Yankee  Doodle  Harrison, 

It  rather  seems  that  humbug  schemes, 

Can  never  more  cajole  us  ; 
There's  such  a  run  for  Harrison, 

That  nothing  can  control  us. 
The  western  world  the  flag's  unfurled, 

No  faction  can  divide  her; 
And  all  the  rest  will  sign  the  Test, 

"  Log  Cabin  and  Hard  Cider." 

The  Martial  Spirit  was  manifested  in  the  song  "The  Hero 
of  the  Thames,"  sung  to  the  air,  " '  Tis  my  delight,"  of  which 
two  verses  are  given : 


CAMPAIGN    SONGS. 

Let  Loco  focos  rail  and  rant, 

At  currency  and  banks  ; 
We're  sick  of  all  their  empty  cant, 

We  spurn  them  from  our  ranks. 
We  do  not.  mind  their  silly  talk, 

Nor  heed  their  idle  claims, 
We'll  make  the  whole  banditti  walk, 

With  our  Hero  of  the  Thames. 

The  Hero  of  the  Thames,  my  boys, 
The  Hero  of  the  Thames. 

When  British  foes  assailed  our  land, 

And  hovered  on  our  coast, 
Pray  where  did  little  Mattie  stand  ? 

Why,  snu;j;  behind  —  a  post. 
A  post  and  place  were  all  his  thought 

(At  the  spoils  alone  he  aims), 
While  Harrison  our  battles  fought, 

And  conquered  on  the  Thames! 

The  Hero  of  the  Thames,  my  boys, 
The  Hero  of  the  Thames! 


President  Martin  \ran  Buren's  adoption  of  Andrew  Jackson's 
political  creed,  and  his  aristocratic  tendencies  were  ridiculed  in 
the  "  Song  of  the  Working  Man,"  to  the  air  of  "Yankee 
Doodle,"  thus  :  - 

That  Matty  loves  the  workingman, 

Xo  workingman  can  doubt,  sirs; 
For  well  doth  he  pursue  the  plan 

That  Turns  the  workers  Out,  sirs. 

.  He  turns  them  out  of  Whig  employ, 
He  turns  them  out  of  bread,  sirs, 
And  Middle  men  doth  he  annoy, 
By  striking  business  dead,  sirs. 

For  Matty  is  a  Democrat, 

Sing,  Yankee  Doodle  dandy, 
With  spoons  of  gold,  and  English  coach, 

And  servants  always  handy. 

This  is  a  verse  from  a  stirring  campaign  song  which  was  sung 
in  New  England,  entitled  "  All  For  Harrison,"  to  the  tune,  "All's 
Well  "  :  - 

From  stern  Xew  England's  granite  hills, 
A  cheering  shout  the  welkin  fills; 
Valley  and  glen  prolong  the  cry  — 
And  hark  to  echo's  deep  reply,  — 

"  For  Harrison!" 

"For  Harrison!" 

"  For  Harrison!" 
"  For  Brave  Old  Harrison." 

They  come  —  the  hardy  sons  of  toil  — 
They  leave  the  workshop  and  the  soil  ;  — 


68  CAMPAIGN    SONGS. 

From  ancient  fort  and  battle  plain, 
They  shout  his  name  again. 

"  What  goes  there,  stranger  ? 
Quickly  tell  —  the  word." 
"  OLD  TIP  !" 
"  Hurrah  !" 
All's  well  —  all's  well, 
"  The  North," 
"  The  East." 
All— All's  Well. 

The  songs  of  the  Fremont  (Republican)  campaign  of  1856 
exemplified  the  popular  admiration  of  the  "Pathfinder's" 
achievements  in  the  far  West.  One  of  them  was  in  retort  to  what 
Webster  had  said  of  the  North,  owing  to  her  apparent  backward- 
ness on  the  slavery  issue.  Half  in  sorrow,  half  in  contempt,  "  the 
great  expounder"  had  exclaimed,  "  The  North!  I  have"  heard 
about  it.  But  where  is  the  North  ?  "  This  called  forth  a  song 
to  the  tune  of  the  "  Star  Spangled  Banner,"  the  first  verse  of 
which  ran  thus  :  — 

She  is  found.     A  "  Pathfinder"  discovered  the  North, 
Nigh  frozen  to  death  on  the  bleak  Rocky  Mountains. 
Her  guardians  to  perish  had  driven  her  iorth, 

But  Fremont  conveyed  her  to  Oregon's  fountains; 
In  his  breast  she  was  warmed, 
And  he  bore  her  unharmed. 

Back  again  to  the  home  which  her  absence  alarmed. 
She's  of  age,  and  her  guardians  can  no  more  enslave 
The  free  North,  protected  by  Fremont  the  brave! 

Another  song  of  the  Fremont  campaign  sung  to  the  tune  of  the 
Marseillaise,  had  the  following  ringing  couplet  at  the  end  of  each 
verse  :  — 

Free  Speech,  Free  Press,  Free  Soil,  Free  Man, 
Fre-mont  and  Victory ! 

Millard  Fillmore,  the  Know-Nothing  candidate,  suffered 
many  hard  knocks  at  the  hands  of  the  Fremont  song  writers 
because  as  President  (having  succeeded  Zachary  'Taylor,  who 
died  in  office),  he  had  signed  the  Fugitive  Slave  Law.  Fillmore 
was  thus  satirized  in  a  song  entitled  "  Grim  Truth  in  Mas- 
querade." 

There  lives  a  man  in  Buffalo, 

His  name  is  Millard  Fillmore, 
Who  thinks  the  Union's  fallen  so  low 

It  ought  to  take  one  pill  more 
To  purge  away  the  "prejudice  " 

Which  true  men  have  for  Freedom  — 
A  canting,  pompous  wretch  he  is, 

Who'll  cheat  you  if  you  heed  him. 


CAMPAIGN   SONGS. 


69 


70  CAMPAIGN    SONGS. 

Oh,  Mill  Fillmore,  not  another  pill  more! 
In  our  mouth, 
The  quacking  South, 
Ne'er  shall  put  a  pill  more. 

It  was  only  natural  that  the  influence  upon  the  Republicans  of 
the  prospective  successful  termination  of  the  Civil  War  should  be 
reflected  in  the  songs  of  the  second  Lincoln  Campaign,  in  1864. 
A  noticeable  difference  between  these  songs  and  those  of  the 
Fremont  campaign  is  found,  the  1864  songs  breathing  forth  in 
every  line  the  spirit  of  Freedom  all  but  attained.  The  songs 
have  less  of  humor  and  more  of  a  whole-souled  outpouring  of 
the  national  patriotism.  "  Freedom,"  "  Victory,"  "  The  Foe," 
etc.,  are  words  which  it  is  not  difficult  to  see  furnished  inspiration 
to  the  song-writers,  as  symbolizing  what  was  nearest  to  the  heart 
of  the  people.  The  songs  were  as  a  rule  eulogistic  of  Lincoln, 
but  here  is  a  verse  which  reflects  the  exultation  of  the  North  at 
the  subjugation  of  the  Confederacy  : 

Lincoln  came  to  Washington 

To  view  the  situation, 
And  found  the  world  all  upside  clown, 

A  rumpus  in  the  nation. 
He  heard  Secessia  laugh  in  scorn, 

And  call  him  but  a  noodle; 

"  Laugh  on  ! "  he  cried,  "  as  sure's  you're  born, 
I  still  am  Yankee  Doodle." 

Chorus. — "Yankee  Doodle." 

The  war  at  an  end,  the  campaign  song- writers  told  its  story  in 
verse,  and  the  Grant  Campaign  of  1868  was  remarkable  for  the 
variety  of  its  stirring,  rallying  songs  in  which  in  nearly  every 
instance  Grant's  praises  were  extravagantly  sung.  There  were 
songs  of  thanksgiving,  songs  of  derision,  songs  of  rejoicing, 
besides  a  number  of  effective  recitations.  This  song  was  sung 
to  the  tune  "  Bruce's  Address  "  : 

Men  who  toiled,  and  fought,  and  bled, 
When  the  land  with  strife  was  red, 
By  that  blood  for  freedom  shed, 
Come  and  vote  for  Grant. 

Rouse  ye,  freemen  of  the  land, 
Swell  the  shout  from  strand  to  strand, 
He  who  led  shall  lead  our  band, 
Come  and  vote  for  Grant. 

Woman  paling  in  the  strife  — 
Mother  —  daughter  —  sister  —  wife, — 
Prayed  unto  the  God  of  Life 
For  the  hero  Grant. 


CAMPAIGN    SONGS.  71 

Blessings  on  him  who  hath  won 
Name  and  fame,  like  Washington, 
Liberty's  beloved  son 

Is  the  hero  Grant. 

This  was  the  first  verse  of  a  song  which  was  sung  to  the  tune 
of  "  Auld  Lang  Syne  "  :  - 

Should  brave  Ulysses  be  forgot, 

Who  worked  so  long  and  well, 
On  fields  where  lires  of  death  were  hot,  . 

And  brave  men  fought  and  fell  ? 
He  bore  our  country's  banner  on, 

Through  scenes  of  direful  strife, 
And  helped  to  strike  the  blows  that  saved 

Our  nation's  precious  life. 

The  popular  dislike  of  Andrew  Johnson  did  not  fail  of  ex- 
pression. "  Just  Before  Election  "  was  the  title  of  a  song, 
to  the  tune  "  Just  Before  the  Battle,"  the  first  two  verses  of 
which  were  as  follows  :  — 

Just  before  election,  Andy, 

We  are  thinking  most  of  you; 
While  we  get  our  ballots  ready 

But  be  sure  they're  not  for  you. 
No,  dear  Andy,  you'll  not  get  them, 

But  you'll  get  what  you  deserve, 
Oh,  yes,  you'll  get  leave  of  absence 

As  you  "  swing  around  the  curve." 

Chorus. —  You  have  swung  around  the  circle, 

That  you  ought  to  Swing  is   True, 
And,  oh,  you  tried  to  veto  Congress 
But  I  guess  we'll  veto  you. 

We  have  often  heard  the  story 

Of  the  rogues  of  long  ago, 
Of  the  miller  and  the  weaver 

And  the  jolly  tailor,  too. 
While  the  miller  watched  the  hopper, 

And  the  weaver  stole  the  yarn, 
The  little  tailor  took  the  broadcloth, 

To  keep  the  three  rogues  warm. 
Chorus. 

Grant's  weakness  for  cigars  was  worked  into  a  song,  which  ran 
thus  :  - 

At  Donelson  the  rebel  horde 

Had  gathered  in  their  might, 
Determined  there  with  fire  anil  sword, 

To  make  a  dreadful  fight; 
But  gallant  Foote,  with  his  command, 

Went  "  in  "  by  water  route, 
While  Grant  besieged  upon  the  land, 

Ana  smoked  the  rebels  "out." 


72  CANALS. 

Chorus.  —  Where  volleyed  thunder  loudest  pealed, 

Along  the  front  of  war, 
The  Gen'ral  calmly  viewed  the  field 
A-smoking  his  cigar. 

In  the  New  York  Tribune  for  October  22,1868,  Miles  O'Reilly, 
the  poet,  had  a  song  entitled  "  The  Presidency,"  as  follows  :  — 

So,  boys!  a  final  bumper, 

While  we  all  in  chorus  chant, 
"  For  next  President  we  nominate 

Our  own  Ulysses  Grant!" 
And  if  asked  what  State  he  hails  from 

This  our  sole  reply  shall  be, — 
"  From  near  Appomattox  Court  House, 

With  its  famous  apple  tree!" 
For  'twas  there  to  our  Ulysses 

That  Lee  gave  up  the  fight  — 
Now,  boys,  "  To  Grant  for  President, 

And  God  defend  the  right  !" 

In  recent  years,  campaign  songs  seem  to  have  lost  their 
attractiveness  for  the  voters.  Songs  are  written  and  are  sung  at 
the  large  rallies,  but  do  not  become  popular.  Two  causes  are 
accountable  for  this,  the  making  of  issues  which  do  not  evoke 
popular  enthusiasm  or  touch  the  voter's  patriotism,  and  again, 
the  funny  man  of  the  metropolitan  newspaper.  The  newspaper 
wit  furnishes  every  morning  a  quantity  of  clever  hits,  puns, 
verses,  jingles,  etc.,  which  are  palatable  enough  to  satiate  the 
popular  liking  for  campaign  humor. 

Canals,  Inter-Oceanic,  The  Nicaragua  and  the  Panama.  - 

Various  projects  have  been  elaborated  from  time  to  time  for  the 
building  of  a  canal  connecting  the  Atlantic  and  Pacific  Oceans. 
The  Lake  Nicaragua  scheme  originated  in  1550  with  Antonio 
Galvano,  but  nothing  in  the  way  of  progress  was  accomplished 
until  the  present  century.  In  1872-3,  1876-7,  and  1885  expedi- 
tions for  the  exploration  and  location  of  routes  were  dispatched 
to  Nicaragua  by  the  United  States  Government.  Some  of  these 
surveys  occupied  a  period  of  many  j^ears,  and  up  to  1872-3 
eight  different  routes  were  examined.  The  deliberate  and  final 
determination  of  the  government  in  favor  of  the  Nicaragua  route 
dates  from  1876.  Private  individuals,  incorporated  as  companies, 
secured  concessions  from  the  Nicaragua  government,  and  this 
government  negotiated  a  treaty  with  Nicaragua  for  the  construc- 
tion of  the  canal,  but  in  neither  case  was  anything  accomplished. 
In  1889,  a  company  of  New  York  capitalists,  known  as  the 
Maritime  Canal  Company,  was  incorporated  by  Congress.  Their 
force  of  engineers  and  laborers  has  been  at  work  over  two  years, 
and  is  making  good  progress. 


CANALS. 


73 


The  Route  of  the  Canal  is  one  hundred  and  sixty-nine  miles 
long,  but  the  canal  proper  is  only  twenty-nine  miles  long.  It 
begins  at  Grey  town,  on  the  eastern  side,  follows  the  course  of  the 
San  Juan  River  above  Ochoa  through  Lake  Nicaragua,  a  distance 
of  one  hundred  and  twenty-nine  miles,  and  thence  to  the  harbor  of 
Brito,  the  Pacific  terminus.  The  surface  of  the  lake,  one  hundred 
and  ten  feet  above  the  sea,  is  the  summit  level.  At  the  eastern 
end  of  the  lake  the  San  Juan  River  will  be  backed  up  and  kept  at 
the  lake  level  by  a  dam  for  a  distance  of  sixty-four  miles,  thus 
forming  an  extension  of  the  lake  which  will  have  a  width  of  one 


DBEDGIXG    AT    PAJJASIA. 


thousand  feet  and  a  depth  of  from  twenty- eight  to  one  hundred 
and  thirty  feet.  The  estimated  cost  of  the  canal  is  $64,000,000  ; 
the  canal,  it  is  expected,  will  be  ready  for  business  in  1902. 

Panama  Canal. — The  Panama  Canal  project  is  in  a  distress- 
ing financial  condition  at  the  present  time.  The  company  was 
organized  in  March,  1880,  having  obtained  from  the  Columbian 
government  a  concession  which  provided  for  the  construction  and 
opening  of  the  canal  by  March  3,  1892.  After  the  company  had 
sunk  $266,000,000,  it  went  into  bankruptcy.  The  length  of  the 
projected  canal  is  forty-five  and  a  half  miles,  and  the  amount  of 
work  accomplished  was  from  one  fifth  to  one  third  of  the  whole. 
The  Columbian  government  would  have  taken  possession  of  the 
enterprise  under  the  terms  of  the  concession  in  March  1892,  but 
an  extension  of  the  concession  for  ten  years  was  granted,  provid- 


74         CESSIONS    OF    TERRITORY    BY    CONQUEST    OR    PURCHASE. 

ing  a  new  company  shall  have  been  organized  by  February  28, 
1898,  with  sufficient  means  to  pursue  the  work  in  a  "  serious  and 
regular  manner."  The  original  plans  for  a  tide-level  canal  have 
been  altered  so  as  to  provide  locks  and  cheapen  the  construction. 
The  estimates  of  the  cost  of  completion  range  between  $100,000,- 
000  and  $200,000,000.  The  property  is  kept  in  order  by  a  per- 
manent staff  at  an  expense  of  $60,000  a  month. 

Capital  of  the  United  States,  The. — New  York  was  the 
first  national  capital.  When  a  change  was  talked  of,  the  South- 
erners objected  to  Philadelphia  because  it  was  an  abolition  cen- 
tre. It  was  agreed  to  make  Philadelphia  the  capital  for  ten 
years,  and  then  a  district  ceded  by  Maryland  to  the  Federal  gov- 
ernment. This  district,  since  called  the  District  of  Columbia, 
consists  of  ten  square  miles  lying  on  both  sides  of  the  Potomac, 
with  Washington  as  the  principal  city.  In  1800,  the  capital  was 
removed  from  Philadelphia  to  Washington.  (For  Federal  Build- 
ings see  District  of  Columbia.) 

Carpet  Baggers.     (See  Political  Parties.) 

Cattle  Raising.     (See  Stock  Raising.) 

Centennial  Exposition.  (See  World's  Fairs,  under  World's 
Columbian  Exposition.) 

Centre  Of  Population.     (See  Population  and  Area.) 

Cessions  of  Territory  by  Conquest  or  Purchase.  —  The 

first  acquisition  of  territory  was  that  won  by  the  conquest  of 
Great  Britain  in  the  Revolutionary  War,  and  ceded  to  the  col- 
onies, by  the  Treaty  of  Paris,  in  1782,  viz.,  the  territory  east  of 
the  Mississippi,  with  the  right  of  free  navigation  of  the  great 
lakes  and  the  Mississippi,  and  with  practically  equal  rights  on  the 
Newfoundland  fishing  grounds.  The  area  of  the  territory  ceded 
was  827,844  square  miles. 

On  payment  to  France  of  $15,000,000,  the  Province  of 
Louisiana  was  purchased  in  1803,  according  to  the  terms  of  a 
convention  signed  at  Paris,  James  Monroe,  and  Robert  R.  Liv- 
ingston, our  minister,  both  acting  for  this  government.  The  pur- 
chased territory  extended  from  the  gulf  as  far  north  as  the 
Canadian  line,  and  northwest  as  far  as  the  present  States 
Montana,  Idaho,  Oregon,  and  Washington,  one  half  of  Wyoming 
and  Colorado,  a  total  area  of  1,171,931  square  miles.  By  this 
acquisition  the  area  of  the  United  States  was  more  than  doubled, 
and  there  was  great  rejoicing. 

On  February  22,  1819,  Spain  ceded  Florida  to  the  United 
States  for  $6,500,000.  This  purchase  included  59,268  square 
miles.  Texas  having  declared  her  independence  of  Mexico, 


CIPHER    DESPATCHES.  75 

this  government,  as  early  as  1827,  tried  to  obtain  the  country  by 
purchase,  Calhoun  and  Clay,  as  Secretaries  of  State,  offering 
$1,000,000  and  $5,000,000.  It  was  not  until  1845  that  Texas 
(375,239  square  miles)  was  received  into  the  Union,  the  pur- 
chase money  being  paid  in  bonds  for  $10,000,000,  which  were 
used  in  liquidation  of  her  debt,  as  indemnity  for  relinquishing  her 
claim  to  New  Mexico. 

The  sum  of  $15,000,000  and  the  assumption  of  $3,250,000  of 
debts  due  from  Mexico  to  United  States  citizens  was  the  price 
paid  to  Mexico  in  1848  for  545,783  square  miles  of  territory 
known  as  New  Mexico  and  Upper  California.  The  title 
to  certain  portions  of  Arizona  and  New  Mexico  being  still  in 
doubt,  this  government  acquired  themjby  purchase  from  Mexico 
in  1853  ;  the  price  paid  was  $10,000,000.  The  area  acquired  was 
45,535  square  miles.  By  a  treaty  of  March  30,  1867,  ratified  by 
the  Senate,  June  20,  of  the  same  year,  Russia  ceded  to  the 
United  States  what  is  now  the  Territory  of  Alaska.  The 
price  paid  was  $7,200,000,  and  the  area  of  the  country  was  577,390 
square  miles. 

Cereals,  Production  of.     (See  Agriculture.) 
Cheap  Coats  Make  Cheap  Men.     (See  Sayings  of  Famous 
Americans.) 

Chet.     (See  Presidents  of  the  United  States.) 
Cigars,  Production  of.      (See  Liquors  and  Tobacco.) 
Cigarettes,   Production  of.     (See  Liquors  and  Tobacco.) 
CincinnatllS  of  the  West.      (See  Presidents   of   the    United 
States.) 

Cipher  Despatches.—  After  the  decision  of  the  Electoral 
Commission  was  made  known  in  1 877,  it  was  discovered  that  cipher 
despatches,  supposed  to  have  been  sent  by  parties  in  clese  relations 
with  Samuel  J.  Tilde n,  the  defeated  candidate,  to  members  of  the 
Board  of  Canvassers  of  Florida,  which  was  one  of  the  doubtful 
States,  regarding  a. bargain  for  the  purchase  of  the  electoral  vote 
of  that  State.  In  this  election,  the  change  of  one  electoral  vote 
would  have  changed  the  result.  A  commit'tee  of  Congress  inves- 
tigated the  charges  of  attempted  corruption,  and  exonerated 
Tilden,  but  intimated  that  at  least  one  member  of  the  Canvassing 
Board  was  purchasable.  The  minority  members  of  the  committee, 
all  of  them  Republicans,  expressed  their  belief  in  Tilden's  guilt, 
as  borne  out  by  the  evidence.  Tilden  replied  in  a  public  letter 
denying  emphatically  any  connection  or  knowledge  of  the  alleged 
attempted  corruption. 

Cities,   Growth   of  Population  of.     (See   Population   and 


76  CIVIL    SERVICE    REFORM. 

Area.)     Government  of.     (See  States,  Cities,  etc.,  Government 
of.) 

Civil  Rights  Bill. —  This  bill  involved  the  status  of  the  negro 
as  a  citizen.  It  came  before  Congress  in  1866.  In  effect  it 
declared  that  all  persons  born  in  the  United  States  were  citizens, 
and  should  enjoy  the  rights  of  the  citizen.  It  excepted  Indians. 
The  withholding  of  such  rights  was  made  by  the  bill  a  misde- 
meanor, for  the  Federal  courts  to  punish.  In  the  event  of  failure 
to  obey  the  law,  the  President  was  empowered  to  cause  it  to  be 
obeyed,  if  necessary,  using  the  army  or  the  navy  in  enforcing  the 
act.  President  Johnson  vetoed  the  act,  March  27th,  and  early  in 
April  it  was  passed  over  the  veto.  Senator  Sumner's  amend- 
ment to  prevent  discrimination  against  negroes  by  common  car- 
riers, inn-keepers,  theatre-managers,  etc.,  was  proposed  as  an 
amendment  to  the  Amnesty  Act  of  1872,  but  it  was  voted  down 
by  the  Democrats.  After  two  more  attempts  at  passage,  in  March, 
1875,  the  bill  became  a  law.  In  October,  1883,  the  Supreme 
Court  declared  as  much  of  the  act  of  1875  as  related  to  its 
operation  in  the  States  to  be  unconstitutional,  leaving  its  opera- 
tion unhampered  in  the  District  of  Columbia  and  the  Territories. 

Civil  Service  Reform. —  The  officials  and  clerks — -over 
120,000  in  all- — by  whom  the  administration  of  government  is 
carried  on,  constitute  the  Civil  Service.  About  5,000  of  these 
are  appointed  by  the  President  alone  or  with  the  consent  of  the 
Senate;  about  15,000  under  what  are  known  as  the  "Civil 
Service  Rules,"  but  the  great  body  of  officeholders  are  appointed 
by  heads  of  departments.  Those  employed  in  the  civil  service 
have  always  been  theoretically  entitled  to  serve  "  during  good 
bejiavior,"  but  practically,  until  within  a  few  years,  their  positions 
have  depended  upon  the  theory  that  "  to  the  victors  belong  the 
spoils." 

Jackson  was  the  first  President  to  put  the  theory  into  practice, 
and  to  inaugurate  the  system  of  Removals  and  Appointments 
for  political  reasons.  Jackson  maintained  that  every  citizen  had 
an  equal  right  to  public  office  ;  he  advocated  "  rotation  in  office," 
which  involved  frequent  changes;  and  his  removals  numbered 
far  more  than  those  of  all  previous  Presidents  together.  These 
doctrines  have  been  defended  on  the  ground  that  a  long  tenure 
of  office  creates  a  bureaucracy  of  officeholders,  who  forget  that 
they  are  servants  of  the  public,  and  who  are  apt  to  acquire  a  habit 
of  doing  business  in  an  old-fashioned  way. 

In  1883  Congress  passed  a  law  for  the  improvement  of  the 
civil  service  of  the  United  States.  This  act  provides  for  the  ap- 
pointment by  the  President  of  three  commissioners  to  have  general 


CIVIL    SERVICE    REFORM.  77 

charge  of  filling  the  vacancies  in  the  civil  service  department,  and 
stipulates  that  the  fitness  of  all  applicants  for  all  subordinate 
positions  in  the  departments  at  Washington,  and  in  all  custom 
houses  and  post-offices  having  as  many  as  fifty  officeholders,  shall 
be  tested  by  examinations,  and  the  positions  assigned  with  ref- 
erence to  the  capacity,  education,  health,  and  character  of  the 
applicants,  regardless  of  political  preferences.  According  to  this, 
no  absolute  appointment  to  office  can  be  made  until  the  applicant 
has  proven  his  or  her  ability  to  fill  the  position  satisfactorily 
by  six  months'  service ;  no  person  habitually  using  intoxicating 
beverages  to  excess  shall  be  appointed  to,  or  retained  in,  any 
office;  no  recommendation  which  may  be  given  by  any  senator 
or  member  of  the  House  of  Representatives,  except  as  to  charac- 
ter and  residence,  shall  be  considered  by  the  examiners;  men  and 
women  shall  receive  the  same  pay  for  the  same  work. 

The  general  competitive  examinations  for  Admission  to 
the  Service  are  limited  to  the  following  subjects  :  1.  Orthog- 
raphy, penmanship,  and  copying-  2.  Arithmetic  —  fundamental 
rules,  fractions,  and  percentage.  3.  Interest,  discount,  and  the 
elements  of  book-keeping  and  of  accounts.  4.  Elements  of  the 
English  language,  letter  writing,  and  the  proper  construction  of 
sentences.  5.  Elements  of  the  geography,  history,  and  govern- 
ment of  the  United  States.  A  standing  of  sixty-five  per  cent,  in 
the  first  three  branches  is  necessary  to  qualify.  There  is  a  board  of 
examiners  in  each  of  the  principal  cities  of  the  country,  and  ex- 
aminations are  held  at.  regular  intervals.  Following  are  a  few 
questions  chosen  at  random  from  the  civil  service  Examination 
Papers: 

Write  without  abbreviation  the  names  of  fifteen  seaports  of 
the  Union. 

Name  four  of  the  principal  tributaries  of  the  Mississippi  River. 

Which  States  are  peninsular,  and  upon  what  waters  are  they 
situated  ? 

Name  seven  of  the  leading  agricultural  products  of  the  United 
States,  and  state  in  what  section  of  the  country  each  is  most  ex- 
tensively cultivated. 

Correct  any  errors  you  find  in  the  following  sentences  .  — 

The  boy  done  it,  and  he  is  as  restless  here  as  he  will  be  if  he 
was  with  you. 

He  had  did  it  and  spoke  of  doing  it  before  we  come  here. 

Write  a  letter  to  Senator  Jackson  answering  in  full  his  letter 
of  September  7  to  the  Secretary  of  the  Treasury  in  which  he 
asks  :  "  How  must  my  nephew  proceed  to  obtain  a  clerkship  in 
the  Treasury  Department,  under  the  civil-service  law,  and  what 
are  the  requisite  qualifications  of  a  good  clerk  ?  " 


78  COINAGE. 

The  government  sold  an  old  vessel  for  $160,000,  payable  two 
fifths  in  eight  months  and  the  residue  in  seventeen  months  from 
the  sale.  What  was  the  present  cash  value  of  the  vessel,  the 
current  rate  of  interest  on  money  being  five  per  cent.  ? 

A  merchant  imported  from  Bremen  82  pieces  of  linen  of  82 
yards  each,  on  which  he  paid  for  the  duties,  at  24  per  cent., 
$122.38,  and  other  charges  to  the  amount  of  $40.96.  What  was 
the  invoice  value  per  yard,  and  the  cost  per  yard  after  duties  and 
charges  were  paid  ? 

A  owned  •£  of  a  ship  and  sold  J  of  his  share  to  B,  who  sold  | 
of  what  he  bought  to  C,  who  sold  f  of  what  he  bought  to  D. 
What  part  of  the  whole  vessel  did  D  buy  ? 

The  government  sold  8,000  old  muskets  at  22^-  per  cent,  of 
their  cost.  The  purchaser  becoming  insolvent  paid  only  13  per 
cent,  of  the  price  he  agreed  to  pay ;  that  is,  he  paid  $900.  What 
did  each  musket  cost  the  government? 

Add  7f,  j?  of  6|,  8£,  6.^  divided  by  8',  and  reduce  to  lowest 
terms. 

Civil  War  Statistics.      (See  Wars  of  the  United  States.) 

Clean  Sweep.     (See  Slang  of  Politics.) 
Coal,  Production  of.     (See  Mining.) 

Coins  of  the  Colonial  Period.  (See  Coinage,  Free  Coinage, 
etc.) 

Coins  of  the  United  States.  (See  Coinage,  Free  Coinage, 
etc.) 

Coinage,  Free  Coinage. 

Coinage  Acts.  Coins  of  the  U.  S. 

Trade  Dollars.  Mints. 

Free  Coinage.  Colonial  Coinage. 

In  God  We  Trust.  Currency. 

Money  Slang.  Bimetallism. 

Dollar  Sign. 

The  controversy  of  the  present  day  regarding  the  free  coinage 
of  silver  has  an  intimate  connection  with  the  first  legislation 
passed  by  Congress,  affecting  the  coinage  of  silver.  Tn  the  Act 
of  April  2,  1792,  an  act  "establishing  a  mint  and  regulating  the 
coins  of  the  United  States,"  there  was  a  clause  which  established 
the  Silver  Dollar  as  the  standard  as  follows  :  — 

"  Dollars  or  units  —  each  to  be  of  the  value  of  a  Spanish  milled 
dollar  as  the  same  is  now  current^  and  to  contain  three  hundred 
and  seventy-one  grains  and  four  sixteenth  parts  of  a  grain  of  pure 
or  four  hundred  and  sixteen  grains  of  standard  silver."  The  act 
also  provided  for  half  dollars,  quarter  dollars,  dimes,  and  half 


COINAGE. 


79 


dimes,  each  to  contain,  respectively,  one  half,  one  fourth,  one 
tenth,  and  one  twentieth  of  the  pure  silver  contained  in  the 
dollar.  The  coinage  of  cents  and  half  cents  of  copper  was  also 
provided  for. 

In  this  first  coinage  act  the  words  "  dollar  or  unit "  are  applied 
equally  to  dollars  of  gold  and  the  dollar  of  silver  —  that  is, 
"  dollar  "  is  the  name  of  the  unit  of  money,  and  the  gold  eagle 
was  to  be  of  the 
value  of  ten  dol- 
lars, or  units. 
The  coin  which 
represented  ex- 
actly the  unit 
was  the  silver 
dollar,  and  the 
act  provided  that 
it  should  be  of 
the  value  of  the 
Spanish  milled 
dollar,  as  that 
piece  was  then 
current.  The 
assay  of  a  num- 
ber of  Spanish 
dollars,  then  in 

common  use,  showred  them  to  contain  371^  grains  of  pure  silver, 
or  416  grains  of  standard  silver.  The  same  act  fixed  the  relative 
or  proportional  value  of  Gold  to  Silver  as  15  to  1.  This 
ratio  was  not  exactly  in  accordance  with  the  ratio  which  then 
prevailed  in  European  countries.  Silver  was  slightly  over-valued 
and  gold  a  little  under-valued.  The  result  was  that  the  metallic 
money  of  the  United  States,  during  this  period,  consisted  mostly 
of  silrer  coins  and  largely  of  foreign  coins.  But  $11,908,890  of 
gold  altogether  was  coined  from  1793  to  1834,  and  this  was 
generally  soon  exported.  The  production  of  gold  for  the  same 
period  in  the  United  States  is  given  at  $14,000,000. 

The  Act  of  June  28,  1834,  changed  weight  and  fineness  of  the 
gold  dollar,  making  it  258  grains  of  .899225  of  fineness,  or  232 
grains  of  pure  gold.  The  Act  of  January  18,  1837,  established 
.900  as  the  standard  fineness  of  both  gold  and  silver.  It  left  the 
weight  of  the  gold  dollar  unaltered  (thus  slightly  increasing  its 
value)  and  reduced  the  weight  of  the  silver  dollar  to  412£  grains, 
leaving  its  value  unchanged.  The  Ratio  of  Gold  to  Silver 
thus  became  as  15.98  to  1.  The  ratio  in  Europe  was  15.5  to  1. 
The  effect  of  this  change  in  ratio  was  the  Depletion  of  the 


UNITED    STATES    MINT,     PHILADELPHIA. 


80  COINAGE. 

Country  of  its  silver  currency,  for  the  reason  that  full-weight 
silver  coins  were  worth  for  export  a  little  more  than  three  per 
cent,  more  than  gold  coins  ;  and  as  the  subsidiary  coins  contained 
proportionally  the  same  weight  of  pure  silver  contained  in  the 
dollar  piece,  it  was  as  profitable  to  export  these  coins  as  the 
dollar  piece.  Congress  put  a  check  to  the  exportation  of  frac- 
tional silver  by  Act  of  February  21,  1853,  which  reduced  the 
weight  of  the  half  dollar  from  20Gf  grains  to  192  grains  of  stan- 
dard silver  dollar,  and  the  smaller  silver  coins  in  proportion.  At 
the  International  Monetary  Conference  held  at  Paris  in  1867, 
Samuel  B.  Ruggles  represented  the  United  States,  and  favored  a 
"  common  unit  of  money,"  which  should  be  gold.  As  chairman 
of  the  Senate  Finance  Committee,  in  1868,  Senator  Sherman  intro- 
duced a  bill  for  the  establishment  of  an  exclusively  gold  standard, 
but  the  bill  was  not  passed. 

By  the  Act  of  1873,  the  coinage  of  Silver  Trade  Dollars  of 
420  grains  was  authorized.  These  coins  were  not  intended  for 
circulation  as  dollars,  but  for  convenience  in  transportation  ; 
nevertheless  they  did  circulate,  and  when  silver  declined  the 
coinage  of  bullion  into  trade  dollars  was  carried  on  at  great  profit 
to  the  owners  of  the  bullion.  The  coinage  of  trade  dollars  of 
420  grains  was  suspended  by  the  Bland-Allison  Act  of  1878, 
which  provided  for  the  coinage  of  silver  dollars  of  the  weight  of 
41 2£  grains  of  standard  dollar,  at  the  rate  of  at  least  two  millions, 
and  not  exceeding  four  millions  a  month.  President  Hayes 
vetoed- this  bill,  but  it  was  passed  over  the  veto  and  became  a 
law. 

The  advocates  of  the  free  coinage  of  silver  have  made  power- 
ful efforts  to  secure  the  passage  of  a  bill  removing  the  restrictions 
imposed  upon  the  Secretary  of  the  Treasury  by  the  Act  of 
1878,  in  the  amount  of  bullion  he  may  accept  for  coinage  into 
silver  dollars.  In  the  Fifty-First  Congress,  there  was  a  pro- 
tracted struggle  over  the  free  coinage  question.  The  House 
passed  a  bill  authorizing  the  purchase  of  bullion  amounting  to 
$4,500,000  a  month ;  this  bill  went  to  the  Senate,  where  it  was 
amended,  and  was  then  reported  back  to  the  House,  where  it 
failed  to  pass.  Finally,  another  bill,  authorizing  the  purchase 
monthly  of  4,500,000  Ounces  of  Bullion,  at  the  market 
price  thereof,  not  exceeding  one  dollar  for  371^  grains  of  pure 
silver,  to  be  paid  for  in  treasury  notes,  was  passed.  The  bill 
repealed  the  section  of  the  Bland- Allison  Act,  which  authorized 
coinage  of  bullion  purchased  into  trade  dollars  of  not  less  than 
$2,000,000,  and  not  exceeding  $1,000,000  a  month. 

Free  Coinage.  — Free  coinage  is  the  acceptance  by  the 
Secretary  of  the  Treasury  of  all  bullion  offered  to  him  for  coinage 


COINAGE.  81 

into  money,  gold  or  silver.  At  the  present  time  there  is  free 
coinage  of  gold.  The  advocates  of  the  free  coinage  of  silver  are 
principally  from  the  West,  where  the  production  of  silver  is  a  great 
industry.  By  the  Act  of  1890,  the  Secretary  of  the  Treasury  is 
empowered  to  buy  only  4,500,000  ounces  of  silver  bullion  a  month  ; 


THE    MINT    AT    NEW    ORLEANS. 

the  efforts  of  the  free  coinage  men  are  to  secure  a  law  which 
allows  the  unlimited  coinage  of  all  silver  bullion  offered  at  the 
mints. 

The  Opponents  of  Free  Coinage  insist  that  such  a  law 
would  lead  to  the  coinage  of  more  money  than  the  business  of  the 
country  requires,  which  would  result  either  in  the  depreciation  of 
the  value  of  silver  dollars  at  home,  or  their  export  to  foreign 
countries.  The  latter  result  is  more  to  be  feared,  because  of  the' 
reduced  bullion  value  of  silver,  which  is  worth  less  now  than  at 
any  time  in  the  history  of  coinage.  In  1873,  the  bullion  value  of 
a  silver  dollar  was  $1.004;  in  1883,  it  was  $0.858;  in  1890,  it 


82  COINS. 

was  $0.809,  and  in  1892,  about  the  same  value.  The  danger  of 
unlimited  coinage  of  silver  dollars  is  the 
accumulation  of  a  large  amount  of  money 
in  the  Treasury,  which  would  return  there 
because  the  history  of  silver  money  in  dol- 
lars shows  that  the  people  do  not  like  them, 
and  that  they  would  find  their  way  out  of 
the  channels  of  trade  into  the  coffers  of  the 
United  States  Treasury.  It  might  result 
that  the  government  would  be  compelled 
to  redeem  national  banknotes  and  legal 
tender  notes  in  the  depreciated  silver  dollars 
in  the  treasury,  which  would  cause  serious 
lost  to  all  branches  of  trade,  and  might 
bring  about  many  business  failures.  Were 
the  bullion  value  of  silver  dollars  equal  to 
their  face  value,  there  would  be  no  objec- 
tion to  the  free  coinage  of  silver  bullion. 
The  ratio  of  gold  to  silver  is  now  about  20 
to  21  to  1 . 

The  total  Value  of  the  Gold  Coined 
in  the  United  States  from  1793  to  June  30, 
1891,  was  .$1,460,486,253.47  ;  of  the  silver 
coined  in  the  same  period,  $602,574,324.80. 
Total,  $2,063,060,578.27.  •  On  July  1, 1891, 
the  gold  bullion  in  the  treasurv  amounted 
to  $61,442,802;  the  silver  bullion  to  $38,- 
769,772 ;  the  gold  coin  in  the  treasury,  in 
the  banks,  and  in  general  circulation 
amounted  to  $585,140,050  ;  of  silver  dol- 
lars, to  $405,659,268  ;  of  subsidiary  or  frac- 
tional coin,  $77,848,700.  Total,  $1,168,- 
860,592. 

Coins  of   the  United  States.  — The 
gold  coins  at  present  consist  of  the  double 
eagle  (twenty  dollars),  the  eagle  (ten  dol- 
lars), the    half    eagle    (five    dollars),    the 
quarter  eagle  (two   and  one  half  dollars), 
and  the  one-dollar  piece.     The  coinage  of 
I  the  three-dollar  piece  was  discontinued  by 
[act  of  the  Fifty-First  Congress.     The  silver 
coins   are    the    standard    dollar,   the    halt' 
dollar,   the   quarter   dollar,   and  the  dime. 

The  base  metal  coins  are  five,  three,  two, 

GOLD  COINS.   REVERSE.    ancl  one  cent  pieces.     The  gold  coins  and 


COINS. 


83 


the  standard  silver  dollar  are  legal  tender  to  an 
unlimited  amount ;  the  half  dollars,  quarter  dol- 
lars, and  dimes  to  the  maximum  amount  of  ten 
dollars,  and  the  base  metal  coins  to  the  maximum 
amount  of  twenty-five  cents  in  anyone  payment. 

Mints. — Congress  established  mints  at  Phil- 
adelphia in  1791,  at  Charlotte,  N.  C.,  Dahlonega, 
N.  C.,  and  New  Orleans,  La.,  in  1831.     The 
first  two  were  suspended  in  1861.     The  Char- 
lotte Mint  was  made  an  assay  office  in  1873. 
The  New  Orleans  mint  was  suspended  from 
1861   to   1879,    when   it   was   reopened.      A 
mint  was  established  at  Carson  City,  Xev.,  in 
1865,  but  coinage  was  suspended,  and  it  be- 
came an  assay  office  in  1885.     There  is  a  mint 
also  at  San  Francisco,  and  an  assay  office 
at  Denver.     A  Bureau  of  the  Mint  was 
established  in  1873,  having  control  of  all 
the    mints  and  assay  offices  which  had 
previously  been  in  charge  of  the  mint  at 
Philadelphia.     Assay  offices  are  in  oper- 
ation, also,  at  Boise  City,  Helena,  New 
York,  and  St.  Louis. 


Currency. —  Currency  is  any  form  of 
money,  whether  it  is  coin  or  paper.  The 
term  is,  however,  more  often  applied  to 
paper  money.  Paper  currency  consists 
of  legal  tender  notes,  national  banknotes, 
gold  certificates,  and  silver  certificates. 
For  the  redemption  of  legal  tender  notes, 
the  Secretary  of  the  Treasury  is  required 
to  keep  in  the  treasury  $100,000,000  as 
a  reserve.  There  were  outstanding  on 
July  1,  1891,  $346,681,016  of  the  old 
issue  of  these  notes,  and  $50,228,417  of 
the  notes  of  the  Act  of  July  14,  1890. 
Of  gold  certificates  there  were  outstand- 
ing on  the  same  date,  $152,486,429;  of 
silver  certificates,  $314,715,185;  of  na- 
tional banknotes,  $167,927,974 ;  of  cur- 
rency certificates,  $23,780,000.  Total, 
$1,055,819,021. 

The  Legal  Tender  Notes  are  in  de- 
nominations of  one,  two,  five,  ten,  twenty, 


SILVER.  COINS.      REVERSE. 


84 


COINS. 


tjr,  one  hundred,  five  hundred,  one  thousand,  five  thousand,  and 
ten  thousand  dollars.  The  national  banknotes  are  issued  by  na- 
tional banks,  and  are  guaranteed  by  the  govern- 
ment, the  banks  being  required  to  deposit  United 
States  bonds  to  secure  their  payment.  The  Gold 
and  Silver  Certificates  are  issued  against  the 
deposits  of  gold  and  silver  coin,  and  may  be  ex- 
changed for  coin.  These  certificates  are  conven- 
ient for  use  in  business,  and  are  preferable  to  coin 
because  of  its  great  bulk. 

Fiat  Money.  —  The  theory  of  fiat  money  is 
that  the  government  stamp  fixes  a  value  upon  a 
coin,  with  the  "  dollar,"  for  instance,  as  the  ideal 
unit.  In  other  words,  the  theory  is  that  the  gov- 
ernment may  make  a  dollar  simply  by  stamping  it 
with  the  inscription  :  "  This  is  one  dollar  by  act  of 
Congress." 

Coins  of  The  Colonial  Period. —  The  colo- 
nists resorted  to  all  sorts  of  expedients  for  securing 
a  medium  of  exchange.  Wampum,  which  was  the 
Indian  name  for  the  shells  used  in  various  shapes 
as  money  by  the  aborigines,  was  strung  together 
like  beads.  For  a  time  Cotton  Cloth  was  a  me- 
dium for  trade  with  the  Indians,  and  later  Animal 
Pelts.  Corn  and  bullets  of  a  certain  size  passed 
for  money  in  New  England,  and  it  was  not  until 
1652  that  the  coinage  of  metals  into  money  was 
begun.  This  was  at  Boston,  where  a  mint  was  es- 
tablished and  turned  out  coins  of  the  value  of  12, 
6,  and  3  pence.  They  were  rude  affairs,  having  on 
one  side  the  letters  N.  E.,  and  on  the  other  the 
value  stamped  XII.,  VI.,  III.,  as  the  case  might 
be. 

The  first  was  known  as  the  "  New  England 
Shilling,"  and  was  followed  by  the  "  Pine  Tree," 
the    "Willow   Tree,"   and  the "« Oak   Tree."     In 
1645,  Virginia  passed   an    act  for  coinage,  but  it 
knever  went  into  effect.     Maryland  was  more  enter- 
[prising,  and   in  1659  placed   in    circulation    small 
coins  which  were  coined  in  England.    John  Higley, 
of  Connecticut,  made  some  copper  coins  in    1737, 
for  private  circulation,  which  bore  the  encourag- 
ing   legend,   "  I    am    Good    Copper."     Connecti- 
cut, in   1785,  authorized  the  coinage   of  £10,000 
of  copper  cents,  which  were  known  as  the  Connecticut  Cents. 


SILVER  AND 

NICKEL    COINS. 

REVERSE. 


COINS. 


85 


In  1722,  Great  Britain  issued  for  circulation  in  the  colonies 
metal  coins  valued  at  two  pence,  one  pence,  and  a  halfpence. 
The  first  authorized  copper  coinage  was  that  of  Vermont,  which 
State  gave  to  Reuben  Harmon  the  right  to  coin 
copper  money  for  two  years.  His  mint  was  at 
Rupert,  and  he  coined  the  Vermont  cent  of  1785. 
The  next  year,  1786,  Massachusetts  established  a 
mint  for  the  coinage  of  gold,  silver,  and  copper,  and 
authorized  the  coinage  into  cents  and  half  cents  of 
$60,000.  The  mint  was  in  charge  of  Captain  Joshua 
Wetherbee.  The  Cent  was  known  as  the  Massa- 
chusetts cent  of  1787.  This  coin  had  on  one  side  the 
figure  of  an  Indian,  bow  and  arrow  in  hand,  and  the 
words  Common  Wealth,  and  one  star;  on  the  other 
an  eagle,  rising  out  of  a  shield,  marked  "  cent,"  the 
year  of  issue,  and  the  word  Massachusetts  surround- 
ing the  eagle.  New  Jersey  coined  money  from 
June  1,  1786,  and  her  coins  were  the  first  to  bear 
the  legend  "  E  Pluribus  Unum."  (See  Seal  of  the 
United  States.) 

Early    United   States   Coinage.  —  Robert 
Morris,  to  whom  the  Continental  Congress  of  1781 
intrusted  the  matter  of  coinage,  proposed  a  copper 
coin   of  five  units,  and  another  copper  coin  of 
eight  units,  the  unit  to  equal  ^  grain  of  silver,  an 
equivalent  of  y^^  of  a  Spanish  (silver)  dollar. 
Nothing  came  of  Morris'  efforts,  but   in   1784 
Jefferson  made  a  report  in  favor  of  the  Spanish, 
Dollar  the  unit,  and  on  July  6,  1785,  Congress 
resolved :  — 

"  That  the  money  unit  of  the  United  States  of 
America  be  one  dollar ;  that  the  smallest  coin  be 
of  copper,  of  which  two  hundred  shall  pass  for 
one  dollar ;  that  the  several  pieces  shall  increase 
in  a  decimal  ratio."  Congress,  August  8,  1786, 
provided  for  the  issue  of  four  coins,  viz. :  a  gold 
piece  of  110  value,  a  silver  dollar,  a  dime  or 
tenth  of  a  dollar  silver,  and  av  hundredth  of  a 
dollar  in  copper.  An  ordinance  for  the  estab- 
lishment of  the  Mint  of  the  United  States  of 
America  was  passed  Oct.  16,  1786.  XICKEL  A-VD  COPPER 

COtXS.     REVERSE. 

The  United  States  Mint  was  not  established 
and  in  operation  until  1792,  when,  with  David  Rittenhouse  as 
director,  the  government  coinage  began.     The  mint  was  at  Phila- 


86 


COINS. 


delphia  and  is  there  to-day.  The  first  coinage  was  in  October  of 
that  year,  and  was  of  silver  half  dimes. 

Dollar  Sign,  The. —  This  originated  probably  from  the 
character  f ,  which  was  written  as  a  sign  for  eight  reals,  or  a  piece 
of  eight  reals,  which  was  equivalent  to  a  Spanish  dollar. 

Weight  of  a  Million  Dollars  in  Coin. —  The  weight  of  a 
million  gold  dollars  is  1.9  tons;  of  a  million  silver  dollars  (stand- 
ard) 29f  tons;  of  a  million  dollars  in  10  cent  pieces,  29^  tons;  of 
a  million  dollars  in  five-cent  nickel  pieces,  11 0£  tons ;  of  a  million 
dollars  in  ordinary  bronze  cents,  342f  tons  ;  of  a  million  dollars  in 
old  copper  cents,  1,885|  tons.  These  weights  in  each  instance  in 
short  tons  ('2,000  pounds). 

In  God  We  Trust. — This  was  used  first  on  the  two-cent  cop- 


THE     1804     DOLLAK. 

per  of  1864.  It  was  used  also  on  the  $20,  $10,  and  $5  gold  pieces 
of  1866,  and  on  the  silver  dollar,  half  dollar,  and  five-cent  nickel 
of  the  same  issue.  It  was  invented  by  Director  of  the  Mint 
James  Pollock. 

Bland  Dollar  Profile. — It  was  for  some  time  unknown,  and 
by  many  it  is  not  known  now  who  is  the  lady  whose  profile  is 
stamped  on  the  Bland  silver  dollar.  Her  name  was  Miss  Anna 
W.  Williams,  of  Philadelphia,  whom  the  designer  of  the  dollar 
chose  as  having  a  model  female  head.  On  many  of  the  early 
coins  of  the  United  States,  the  head  of  Martha  Washington  was 
stamped,  but  General  Washington  expressed  his  disapproval,  and 
the  portrait  was  altered. 

Money  Slang.— Characteristic  of  the  country  is  the  slang  the 
people  have  invented  to  designate  the  "coin  of  the  realm:" 
Almighty  dollars,  American  balm,  ante's,  balsam,  banknotes, 
bills,  bits,  bluebacks,  blunt,  bobs,  boodle,  brads,  brass,  cans,  car- 
fares, cart-wheels,  cash,  cases,  cents,  century's  ($100  bills),  cer- 
tificates, change,  checks,  chicken-feed  (small  change),  chink, 


COINS.  87 

chips,  circlets,  circulating  medium,  coach- wheels,  coin,  collateral, 
coppers,  counter-ringers,  currency,  daces,  daddy-dollars,  darby, 
dibs,  dimes,  dollars,  doots,  dooteramus,  dots,  dough,  ducats,  dust, 
eagle-bird,  essential  (of  the),  fat,  fat  plunks,  filthy  lucre,  financial 
circles  (dollars),  tips,  fivers,  flipper-ups,  funds,  gelter,  gold,  greed, 
greenbacks,  halves,  hard  cash,  hardscales,  hardstuff,  hoggs,  honey, 
jacks,  jinglers,  legal-tender,  leveys,  levels,  loaves  and  fishes, 
lowre,  lucre,  mint  relics,  money,  mopus,  mopusses,  moss,  muck, 
necessary  (of  the),  Neds,  needful,  new-lights,  nickels,  notes,  ochre, 
ones's,  open  sesame,  paper  dollars,  pennies,  pewter,  picayunes, 
pile,  plasters,  plates,  plungers,  plunkers,  plunks,  pocket- weights, 
poney,  posh,  postals,  purse-convicts,  quarters,  quids,  rags,  ready, 
ready-come-down-John,  redge,  reds,  ringers,  rocks,  round  dollars 
(silver),  round  moons  (dollars),  salt,  sand,  scrip,  sharp-shins, 
shekels,  shiners,  shines,  shinplasters,  shot,  sicers,  silver,  sinews-of- 
war,  sinkers,  slats,  slugs,  soap,  sparklers,  specie,  spelter,  spondu- 
lix,  spoons,  sprats,  stamps,  stuff,  sugar,  swag,  sweeteners,  sye- 
bucks,  tenners,  tens,  threswins,  thrums,  tin,  two-bits,  Uncle  Sam's 
I.  O.  U.'s,  Vs,  ways  and  means,  wealth,  wheels,  wherewithal, 
wind,  X's,  yellow's: 

E  Pluribus  Unum. —  "Many  in  one."  This  phrase  was 
brought  into  public  use  for  the  first  time  in  the  report  to  Congress 
by  Franklin,  Adams,  and  Jefferson,  regarding  the  "Great  Seal 
of  the  United  States."  (which  see.) 

Bi-metallisrru —  The  intent  of  bi-metallism  is  to  bring 
about  an  agreement  between  the  values  of  gold  and  silver  at  a 
ratio  of  15|-  to  1,  in  order  that  the  fluctuations  in  their  relative 
value  may  cease,  and  both  metals  may  be  always  available  as 
money  to  the  full  amount  in  circulation.  If  different  countries 
adopt  a  double  standard,  with  different  ratios,  the  gold  or  the 
silver  of  every  country  witt  leave  it  to  go  to  a  country  in  which 
either  is  more  valuable,  and  thus  the  two  metals  will  be  separated. 
If  one  country  alone  adopt  a  double  standard,  its  gold  or  silver 
will  be  exportei  according  as  the  market  value  of  silver  is  lower 
or  higher  than  the  value  fixed  by  the  government  ratio.  This 
country  is  monometallic,  notwithstanding  the  fact  that  there  is 
silver  in  circulation. 

Colonization.     (See  Slang  of  Politics.) 

Colorado. —  The  State  was  settled  at  Conejos,  in  1840,  by  Mexi- 
cans. It  was  admitted  to  the  Union  in  1876.  Lieutenant  Pike> 
U.  S.  A.,  was  the  first  American  who  entered  Colorado,  and  Pike's 
Peak  perpetuates  his  memory.  The  State  is  celebrated  for  its 
high  mountains.  Gray's  Peak  is  13,341  feet  high,  Long's  Peak 
is  14,271  feet  high,  and  Pike's  Peak  is  14,147  feet  high.  There 


88  COLORADO. 

are  more  than  twenty   other  mountain  peaks  exceeding  13,000 

feet.  There  are  many  beautiful 
parks  walled  in  by  lofty  mountain 
ranges;  picturesque  lakes,  and  wild 
river  canons,  with  flashing  cascades 
and  other  natural  beauties.  The 
mountain  scenery  is  most  impressive. 
There  <  is  a  diversity  in  the  climate. 
The  region  on  the  Atlantic  slope  of 
the  Rockies  has  cool  nights,  without 
dew,  even  when  the  temperature  is 
ninety  degrees  during  the  day.  The 
foot-hills  have  hot  summers  with  cool 
GREAT  SEAL  OF  COLORADO.  nights.  Changes  in  temperature  are 
sudden,  but  the  dryness  of  the  air  has 

a  mitigating  influence.  Artificial  irrigation  has  been  introduced, 
and  there  are  now  over  3,000,000  acres  under  profitable  cultiva- 
tion. For  irrigation  purposes  over  $10,000,000  has  been  spent. 

The  Farm  Products  include  2,800,000  bushels  of  wheat, 
2,000,000  of  oats,  2,500,000  of  corn,  3,000,000  of  potatoes,  350,000 
tons  of  hay.  The  leading  farm  product  is  a  clover  called  alfalfa, 
which  is  fed  to  the  live-stock,  and  makes  the  best  of  beef-pro- 
.  ducing  foods.  The  crop  in  1889  was  3,000,000  tons.  Colorado 
has  the  finest  grazing  lands  outside  of  Texas.  The  number  of 
cattle  exceeds  6,000,000.  The  sheep  in  189,0  numbered  over 
1,800,000.  Sheep-raising  and  cattle-raising  utilize  a  large 
capital.  Colorado  is  the  Second  Silver-Producing  State, and 
yields  four  times  as  much  silver  as  gold.  Leadville  produces 
over  $12,000,000  a  year,  chiefly  in  silver.  The  total  bullion 
production  of  Colorado  has  exceeded  $300,000,000 ;  of  lead,  the 
product  has  been  nearly  $50,000,000;  of  copper,  $6,000,000. 
There  are  40,000  square  miles  of  coal  fields,  and  fifty  mines  em- 
ploying 5,400  men.  The  present  output  is  2,360,000  tons.  There 
are  twenty-five  petroleum  Avells,  producing  140,000  barrels  of 
illuminating  oil,  and  160,000  barrels  of  lubricating  oil. 

The  population  in  1870  was  39,864 ;  in  1880,  194,327  ;  in 
1890,  410,975.  The  value  of  real  and  personal  property  in  1888 
was  $130,000,000.  The  manufactures  in  1880  yielded  $14,260,159. 
The  acreage  of  farm  lands,  in  1880,  was  126,585,  valued  at  $25,- 
109,223.  The  school  and  college  attendance  was  85,824.  There 
were  4,176  miles  of  railroad  in  1890,  and  in  1892  there  were 
276  newspapers.  The  educational  institutions  are  the  University 
of  Colorado  at  Boulder,  the  State  School  of  Mines  at  Golden,  the 
Agricultural  College  at  Fort  Collins,  and  the  Normal  School  at 
Greeley,  besides  which  there  are  several  sectarian  institutions. 


COLORADO. 


89 


The  chief  city  is  Denver,  whose  population  in  1890  was 
106,670.  It  has  a  number  of  expensive  buildings,  among 
which  are  the  State  Capitol,  the  High  School,  Opera  House,  and 
several  hotels.  Pueblo,  the  second  city,  has  a  population  of 
28,128.  It  is  a  busy  manufacturing  city,  with  steel-works,  nail 
factories,  rolling  mills,  and  foundries.  Leadville,  the  third  city, 
with  a  population  of  11,159,  is  in  the  heart  of  the  mining  camps, 
and  is  situated  over  10,000  feet  above  the  sea.  John  L.  Routt 


FIRST     AND     LAST     STATE    CAPITOLS,     DENVER,     COLORADO. 

(Rep.),    is  Governor  of  Colorado.     His  term  expires    Jan.     10, 
1893.     The  State  is  Republican. 

Colossus  of  Independence.  (See  Presidents  of  the  United 
States.) 

Columbian  Party.     (See  Political  Parties.) 

Columbus  Celebrations.  (See  World's  Columbian  Expo- 
sition.) 

Connecticut. —  Connecticut  was  one  of  the  thirteen  original 
States  of  the  Union  ;  it  was  settled  at  Windsor,  in  1633,  by 
Massachusetts  men.  There  were  two  capitals,  Hartford  and  New 
Haven,  up  to  1873,  and  then  Hartford  was  made  the  capital. 


90 


CONNECTICUT. 


GREAT  SEAL  OF  CONNECTICUT. 


The  population  in  1380  was  622,700;  in  1890  it  was  740,258. 

The  State  has  real  property  valued 
at  $244,000,000 ;  personal  property 
valued  at  $105,000,000.  It  is  a 
Great  Manufacturing  State,  the 
manufactures,  which  employ  160,- 
000,000  persons,  aggregating  $186,- 
000,000.  The  savings  bank  deposits 
in  1890  aggregated  $112,000,000. 
There  are  three  colleges  in  the 
State,  1,650  public  schools,  135,000 
school  children,  and  207  newspapers. 
The  largest  city  is  New  Haven, 
having  86,045  inhabitants.  It  is  the 
seat  of  Yale  University,  and  the 
leading  manufactures  are  arms,  clocks, 
machinery,  etc.  The  city  has  many 
venerable  elms,  hence  is  known  as  the 
"  City  of  Elms."  Hartford,  the  capital,  has  a  population  of  53,230  ; 
the  State  Capitol,  which  is  one  of  the  handsomest  in  the  country, 
has  a  beautiful  situation  near  the  railroad.  Hartford  is  the  centre 
of  the  Life  and  Fire  Insurance  business  of  the  country,  and  of 
its  size  is  the  wealthiest  city  in  the  country.  The  insurance  risks 
aggregate  a  billion  of  dollars.  Bridgeport,  population  48,856,  is  a 
thriving,  growing  city,  which  is  celebrated  for  its  diversity  of 
manufactures,  and  for  having  been  the  site  of  the  winter  quarters 
of  Barnum's  circus.  P.  T.  Barnum  was  mayor  of  the  city,  and 
its  benefactor.  Its  chief  manufactures  are  cartridges,  sewing- 
machines,  machinery,  and  carpets.  Waterbury,  population  28,- 
646,  is  the  centre  of  the  brass  industry,  and  is  known  therefore  as 
the  Brass  City.  Meriden,  Ansonia,  Willimantic  are  other  busy 
manufacturing  cities  of  this  prosperous  little  State.  The  national 
institutions  are  Forts  Hale  and  Wooster,  nngarrisoned,  near  New 
Haven  ;  Fort  Trumbull,  commanding  New  London  harbor  and  the 
Navy  Yard  at  New  London,  on  the  Thames,  a  beautiful  river 
which  flows  into  Long  Island  Sound.  Connecticut  has  one 
thousand  miles  of  railroads.  Morgan  G.  Bulkeley  (Rep.)  is 
Governor  of  Connecticut.  His  term  expires  Jan.  5,  1803. 
The  State  is  doubtful  in  national  elections,  though  it  now  has  a 
Republican  governor.  Cleveland  carried  the  State  both  in  1884 
and  1888. 

Commanders    of    United    States     Army.      (See    Army, 
United  States.) 

Commerce  of  the  Great  Lakes.     (See  Ship-Building.) 


COXTRABAXD  OF  WAR. 


91 


STATE    CAPITOL    AT    HARTFORD. 


Condition,  A,  Not  a  Theory.  (See  Sayings  of  Famous 
Americans.) 

Congress.      (See  Federal  Government.) 

Constructiouists,  Strict  and  Loose. — The  dominant  parties 
of  the  country  have  held  very  generally  throughout  their  history 
opposite  views  regarding  the  construction  which  may  be  put  upon 
the  Constitution.  The  view  of 
the  Federals,  the  National  Re- 
publicans, the  Whigs,  and  the 
Republicans  has  been  along  the 
line  of  a  liberal  construction  of 
the  document,  while  the  Anti- 
Federalists,  the  Democratic-Re- 
publicans, and  the  Democrats 
have  adhered  in  their  principles 
to  the  strict  letter  of  the  Consti- 
tution. The  one  party  has  thus 
been  styled  Loose  Construction- 
ists,  the  other  Strict  construc- 
tionists.  This  division,  which  is 
the  very  essence  of  the  differ- 
ences between  the  two  great  political  parties  (see  Republican  and 
Democratic  parties),  had  its  origin  in  what  has  been  called  the 
"Elastic  Clause  "of  the  Constitution,  Article  I.,  Section  VIII., 
Clause  18,  which  empowers  Congress  to  make  all  laws  necessary 
for  executing  the  various  powers  defined,  and  for  executing  all 
other  powers  of  government,  etc.  Under  this  clause  Alexander 
Hamilton  assumed  the  right  to  put  through  his  favorite  measures, 
while  Jefferson  opposed  him.  The  strict  constructionists  have  at 
various  times  fought  against  all  legislation  founded  upon  a  loose 
construction  of  the  Constitution,  such  as  the  tax  on  spirits,  the 
United  States  Bank,  the  navy,  internal  improvements,  the  pro- 
tective tariff,  and  Federal  interference  with  slavery  outside  the 
States,  and  in  later  times,  emancipation  and  reconstruction.  It 
has  always  been  a  debatable  question  whether  loose  construction 
has  not  after  all  been  justified  by  the  course  of  public  events, 
yet  on  the  other  hand,  there  inevitably  arises  the  question  whether 
loose  construction  does  not  imply  a  dangerous  assumption  of 
power,  which  may  eventually  be  prostituted  to  the  political  ad- 
vancement of  one  man  or  set  of  men. 

Contraband  of  War.  —  This  is  the  name  applied  to  all  arti- 
cles carried  by.  neutrals  for  the  assistance  of  an  enemy  in  carrying 
on  war.  Such  articles  are  liable  to  seizure  and  to  confiscation. 
In  1861,  Gen.  Benjamin  F.  Butler  applied  the  term  to  negro 


92  CONVICTS   AND 

slaves  who  entered  the  Union  lands.  These  slaves  were  fugi- 
tives from  their  owners,  who  made  demands  on  General  Butler 
for  their  recovery,  but  he  refused  to  give  them  up  on  the  ground 
that  they  were  contraband  of  war.  What  to  do  with  the  negro 
was  a  delicate  problem  with  the  Union  leaders,  and  General  But- 
ler's ingenious  solution  has  been  credited  with  clearing  the  way 
for  the  Emancipation  Proclamation. 

Convicts  and  Paupers.  —  By  the  bulletin  of  the  United 
States  Census  of  1890,  it  appeared  that  the  number  of  Convicts 
in  the  penitentiaries  of  the  United  States  was  45,233,  of  whom 
30,546  were  white  and  14,087  colored;  of  the  total  number 
23,094  were  native-born  and  7,267  foreign-born.  The  number  of 
Prisoners  in  the  county  jails  was  19,538,  of  whom  13,916  were 
white,  and  5,557  were  '  colored ;  of  the  total  number  9,684  were 
native-born  and  3,765  foreign-born.  The  total  number  of  in- 
mates of  Juvenile  Reformatories  was  14,846,  of  whom  1,943 
were  colored;  of  the  total  number  11,078  were  native  and  1,405 
foreign-born.  The  number  of  Paupers  in  the  alms-houses  of 
the  United  States,  in  1890,  was  73,045,  of  whom  6,467  were 
colored ;  of  the  total  36,656  were  native-born,  and  27,648  were 
foreign-born.  The  number  of  paupers  in  the  United  States  was 
small  compared  with  the  number  estimated  to  be  in  the  alms- 
houses  of  foreign  countries.  In  1890  it  appeared  that  there  were 
in  England  and  Wales  787,545  paupers;  in  Ireland,  107,774; 
in  Russia,  350,000  ;  in  Germany,  320,000 ;  in  France  and  Austria, 
290,000  each ;  in  Italy,  270,000. 

Cooley.  —  This  word  was  applied  to  Chinese  laborers  of  the 
poorer  class,  and  in  some  parts  of  the  far  West  it  is  still  widely 
used.  It  obtained  a  wide  circulation  during  the  discussion  of  the 
Chinese  Exclusion  Bill. 

Copyright,  International.  —  The  International  Copyright 
Act,  which  was  passed  by  the  Fifty-First  Congress  and  approved 
by  President  Harrison,  applies  to  books,  etc.,  published  after 
July  1,  1891.  To  acquire  the  benefit  of  international  copyright, 
English  authors  will  have  to  publish  simultaneously  —  that  is,  on 
the  same  day  —  on  both  sides  of  the  Atlantic.  They  will  have  to 
publish  here  to  secure  American  copyright  and  in  England  to 
secure  English  copyright. 

The  book  must  be  printed  from  type  set  up  in  this  country  or 
plates  made  from  such  type,  and  it  must  be  bound  here.  In  the 
case  of  a  book,  map,  dramatic  or  musical  composition,  photograph, 
chromo,  or  lithograph,  the  two  copies  required  to.be  deposited  in 
the  library  of  Congress  shall  be  printed  from  type  set  within  the 
United  States  or  from  plates  made  therefrom,  and  from  engrav- 


COURTS. 


93 


ings,  cuts,  negatives,  and  drawings  on  stone  executed  within  the 
United  States. 

The  importation  of  copyrighted  books  etc.,  printed  abroad,  is 
prohibited,  except  in  the  case  of  persons  purchasing  for  use  and 
not  for  sale,  who  import,  subject  to  the  duty  thereon,  not  more 
than  two  copies  of  a  book  at  one  time,  and  except  in  the  case  of 
newspapers  and  magazines  not  containing  in  whole  or  in  part 
matter  copyrighted  under  the  provisions  of  the  act  unauthor- 
ized by  the  author. 
In  case  of  books  in 
foreign  languages, 
of  which  only  trans- 
lations in  English 
are  copyrighted,  the 
prohibition  of  im- 
portation applies 
only  to  the  transla- 
tion, and  the  impor- 
tation of  books  in 
the  original  lan- 
guage is  permitted. 

Corn,  Produc- 
tion of.  (See  Ag- 
riculture.) 

Cotton,  Produc- 
tion of.  (See  Ag- 
riculture.) 

Counties,    Gov- 
ernment of.    (See 
States,   Cities,    etc., 
Government 
of.) 

Con  nty 
Democ- 
racy. 

(See  Politi- 

iliiStyjiiiiifilliflllli;!!  Parties.) 

THE     SHIELD     OF    LIBERTY.  C  0  U  TtS. 

(For  United 

States  Supreme,  Circuit,  and  other  Courts,  see  Federal  Govern- 
ment.    For  State  Courts,  see  States,  Cities,  etc.,  Government  of.) 

Covenant  with  Death,  and  an  Agreement  with  Hell. 

(See  Sayings  of  Famous  Americans.) 


94  CREDIT    MOBILIER. 

Crackers. —  The  "  poor  white  trash  "  of  the  South.  They  are 
sometimes  so  called,  from  the  usual  article  of  food  among  these 
people,  Indian-corn  cracked  or  ground  into  a  coarse  meal.  They 
are  also  called  "  mean  whites." 

Cradle  of  Liberty. —  A  name  for  Faneuil  Hall,  in  Boston, 
where  many  meetings  in  behalf  of  the  Revolutionary  cause  were 
held. 

Credit  Mobilier. —  The  most  famous  scandal  of  a  financial 
character  this  country  has  known  is  designated  by  this  name. 
Oakes  Ames,  member  of  Congress  from  Massachusetts,  and 
Oliver  Ames,  his  brother,  were  incorporators  of  the  Credit 
Mobilier  of  America,  which,  through  the  Ameses,  contracted  to 
build,  in  1867,  637  miles  of  road  for  the  Union  Pacific  Railroad 
for  $47,000,000.  At  the  time  Credit  Mobilier  shares  were 
quoted  at  200  ;  in  February,  1868,  they  were  quoted  at  300  .  or 
400.  Oakes  Arnes  placed  some  of  the  stock  with  Congressmen, 
"  where,"  as  he  said,  "it  will  do  most  good  for  us."  An  investi- 
gation, ordered  on  motion  of  Speaker  Blaine,  was  instituted  in 
1 873,  the  result  of  which  was  the  recommendation  by  the  investi- 
gation committee  of  the  expulsion  of  Congressman  Ames  for 
attempt  to  bribe  members  of  the  House  by  sales  of  stock  below  its 
value,  and  of  James  Brooks,  of  New  York,  for  having  received 
such  stock,  knowing  that  it  was  intended  to  influence  his  vote  in 
legislation  affecting  the  Union  Pacific  Railroad,  of  which  he  was 
a  government  director.  The  exposure  created  a  profound  sen- 
sation. James  A.  Garfield,  it  was  shown,  had  received  some  of 
the  stock,  the  dividends  on  which  amounted  to  $329.  In  the 
Presidential  campaign  of  1880,  when  he  was  the  Republican 
candidate,  *'  329  "  was  a  campaign  cry  used  against  him  by  his 
opponents.  Both  Ames  and  Brooks  died  within  three  months 
after  the  exposure. 

Currency.      (See  Coinage,  Free  Coinage,  etc.) 
Custom  Houses.      (See  Tariffs  of  the  United  States.) 
Czar;      (See  Nicknames  of  Famous  Americans.) 
Dairy  Products.     <See  Agriculture.) 

Dark  Horse.     (See  Slang  of  Politics.) 

Daughters  Of  the  Revolution.  (See  Sons  of  the  Revolu- 
tion.) 

Dead  Head  in  the  Enterprise.  (See  Sayings  of  Famous 
Americans.) 

Dead-Letter  Office.     (See  Post-Office  System.) 
Debt,  National. '    (See  Finances,  Government.) 


DELAWARE. 


95 


GREAT     SEAL    OF   DELAWARE. 


Defender  of  the  Constitution.  (See  Nicknames  of  Famous 
Americans.) 

Delaware. — This  was  one  of  the  thirteen  original  States  of 
the  Union ;  it  was  settled  at  Wil- 
mington in  1638,  by  Swedes,  sent 
out  by  Queen  Christina  to  found 
a  country  in  which  "  every  man 
should  be  free  to  worship  God  as  he 
chose."  The  population  in  1880  was 
146,608;  in  1890,167,871.  The  cap- 
ital is  Wilmington,  which  has  67,471 
population.  The  manufactures  in 
1890  aggregated  $50,000,000,  the 
most  notable  being  Steam-Ships 
which  are  built  for  some  of  the  lead- 
ing coast  lines.  Several  war-ships 
have  also  been  built  in  Delaware, 

and  others  are  in  course  of  construction.  There  are  560  public 
school  buildings,  with  an  average  attendance  of  22,000,  322 
miles  of  railroad,  and  39  newspapers. 

Wilmington,  the  chief  city,  had  a  population  in  1890  of 
61,437.  It  has  a  fine  park  overlooking  the  Brandywine  River,  on 
whose  banks  the  city  stands,  a  high  school  with  a  manual  training 
department,  and  an  excellent  harbor.  One  of  the  features  of  the 
city  is  the  old  Swedes'  Church,  founded  in  1698,  by  the  original 
settlers.  Dover,  the  capital,  had  a  population  in  1890  of  4,000. 
It  is  an  old  town,  with  an  ancient  look.  Fruit  canning  is  the 
prominent  industry.  The  noteworthy  national  institutions  of 
Delaware  is  the  famous  Delaware  Breakwater,  which  was 
completed  in  1828.  Its  surf-breaker  is  2,748  feet  long,  and  fur- 
nishes needed  protection  to  thousands  of  vessels  on  this  rough 
coast.  Jefferson  called  Delaware  the  "  diamond  in  the  corona- 
tion of  the  States,"  hence  it  is  called  the  Diamond  State.  The 
Governor  of  Delaware  is  Robert  J.  Reynolds  (Democrat),  whose 
term  expires  Jan.  18,  1895.  The  State  is  Democratic. 

Delegates  to  National  Conventions.  (See  How  the  Presi- 
dent is  Elected.) 

Deliverer   of    America.       (See    Presidents    of    the    United 

States.) 

Democratic  National  Committee.  (See  National  Com- 
mittee.) 

Democratic  Party.     (See  Political  Parties.) 
Democratic  Rooster.      (See  Slang  of  Politics.) 


96 


DISTRICT    OF    COLUMBIA. 


Department  of  Justice.      (See  Federal  Government.) 

Direct  Tax  Refund.—  This  bill,  enacted  by  the  Fifty-First 
Congress,  provided  that  the  Secretary  of  the  Treasury  shall  re- 
imburse the  States  to  the  amount  of  their  payments  to  the  United 
States  of  the  "  direct  taxes  "  levied  by  the  government  in  support 
of  the  War  of  the  Rebellion  in  1861.  Payment  is  also  to  be 
made  to  the  owner  of  lands  in  St.  Helena  and  St.  Luke's  parishes 
in  South  Carolina  that  were  sold  under  the  operation  of  the  direct 
tax  act. 

District  of  Columbia.  (See  Capital  of  the  United  States.)— 
The  District  of  Columbia  was  ceded  to  the  Federal  government 
jointly  by  Maryland  and  Virginia  in  1790.  The  capitol  at  that 
time  was  at  Philadelphia,  but  was  removed  to  Washington  in 
1800.  The  District  covers  an  area  of  70  square -miles.  Besides 
Washington,  the  only  place  of  importance  is  Mount  Pleasant, 
having  a  population  of  3,000.  The  manufactures  of  the  District 
are  worth  over  $15,000,000  yearly.  There  are  18,000  acres  of 
farm  lands  valued  at  $3,600,000.  The  population  of  Washington 
in  1890  was  229,796.  It  lies  on  the  Potomac  River,  106  miles 
from  Chesapeake  Bay.  The  city  was  beautifully  planned  by  the 
French  engineer,  1'Enfant,  aided  by  Jefferson,  the  aim  being  to 
combine  the  practical  straight  lines  of  Babylon  and  Philadelphia 
with  the  artistic  beauty  and  grace  of  Versailles,  and  to  furnish 

noble  and  commanding 
sites  for  the  public  build- 
ings. More  than  half  the 
city  is  in  Streets  and 
Parks,  the  former  of 
which  are  the  widest  in 
the  world,  and  are  over- 
hung by  myriads  of  fine 
shade-trees,  and  partly 
given  up  to  narrow  parks. 
The  leading  educa- 
tional institutions  are  the  Columbian  University,  Georgetown 
University,  and  Howard  University.  The  magnificent  structures 
used  for  the  executive  and  legislative  departments  of  the  Federal 
government  cost  to  build  upwards  of  $100,000,000. 

Of  these  the  Capitol  is  the  most  imposing.  The  old  north 
wing  was  founded  by  Washington  in  1793,  and  the  old  south 
wing  dates  from  1811.  Destroyed  by  the  British  in  1814,  the 
edifice  was  rebuilt  in  1817-27.  In  1851  the  architect  commenced 
the  new  extensions,  the  house  occupying  the  present  hall  in  1857, 
and  the  Senate  in  1859.  The  great  iron  dome  arose  in  1856-65. 


SIGNAL    SERVICE    HEADQUARTERS. 


DISTRICT    OF    COLUMBIA.  97 

The  cost  of  the  Capitol  and  its  furnishings  has  exceeded  $30,000,- 
000.  The  first  troops  arriving  in  Washington  early  in  the  Seces- 
sion War  converted  the  building  into  a  fortress,  and  during  the 
war  was  steadily  carried  forward  on  the  Capitol.  It  stands  on 
Capitol  Hill,  and  covers  three  and  one  half  acres.  There  is  a 
middle  structure,  containing  the  Rotunda  and  Library,  the  Senate 
and  House  of  Representatives,  being  in  the  north  and  south 
wings  respectively.  The  dome  is  307£  feet  high  and  135£  feet 
in  diameter. 

The  features  of  the  Capitol  are  the  grand  porticoes,  with  their 
statuary  and  Corinthian  columns ;  the  bronze  doors,  covered  with 


THE    SMITHSONIAN     INSTITUTION,     WASHINGTON,     D.    C. 

statuettes  and  reliefs  representing  the  discovery  of  America,  the 
life  of  Columbus,  the  Revolutionary  battles,  the  inauguration  of 
Washington ;  the  Library  of  Congress,  the  largest  in  America, 
containing  640,000  books,  and  abounding  in  rare  literary 
treasures;  the  beautiful  Supreme  Court  Room,  the  seat  of  the 
highest  legal  tribunal  in  America  ;  the  sumptuous  reception  and 
committee  rooms  and  corridors;  the  President's  Room,  the 
most  richly  decorated  in  America  ;  the  Marble  Room,  of  Italian 
and  Tennessee  marble,  called  the  finest  apartment  of  the  kind  in 
the  world;  the  wonderful  marble  .staircases  of  the  legislative 
wings,  with  their  great  paintings  of  Chapultepec,  the  Battle  of 
Lake  Erie,  and  Westward  the  Star  of  Empire  takes  its  way ;  the 
huge  Doric  columns  of  the  crypt ;  and  the  National  Statuary 
Hall,  adorned  by  each  State  with  statues  of  two  of  its  most 
illustrious  sons. 

The  State,  War,  and  Navy  Departments  occupy  an 
enormous  quadrangular  structure,  built  of  huge  granite  blocks, 
erected  in  1871-88,  at  a  cost  of  $10,500,000,  and  the  largest 


98  DISTRICT    OF    COLUMBIA. 

granite  building  in  the  world.     It  covers  four  and  a  half  acres, 
and  has  twenty  acres  of  floor-space. 

The  building  occupied  by  the  Treasury  Department 
cost  $8,000,000,  and  covers  an  area  58:2x300  feet.  Over  2,500 
employees  are  in  the  department  proper.  The  War  Depart- 
ment occupies  two  wings  of  the  State  Department  building, 
and  employs  1,500  clerks.  The  Army  Headquarters  are  also 
here. 

The  Patent  Office  occupies  spacious  rooms  in  a  mas>i\r 
structure  which  is  also  shared  by  the  Interior  Department.  The 
building  cost  $2,700,000,  and  has  191  rooms.  Opposite  the 
Patent  Office  is  the  Post-Office  Department  with  six  hun- 
dred clerks.  The  Department  of  Agriculture  has  a  fine 
building  in  the  Kenaissance  style,  and  employs  here  four  hundred 
persons. 

The  other  important  Federal  buildings  are  the  White  House, 
occupied  by  the  President  and  family^* beautifully  situated  near 
the  Potomac,  with  many  fine  old  trees  and  spacious  lawns,  the 
United  States  Coast  Survey,  the  Bureau  of  Printing  and  En- 
graving, employing  1,200  persons,  the  Government  Printing 
Office  and  Bindery,  the  National  Museum,  containing  extensive 
collections  of  a  miscellaneous  character,  all  of  American  origin, 
the  Army  Medical  Museum,  the  Smithsonian  Institution,  es- 
tablished by  endowment  of  James  Smithson,  an  English  scientist, 
and  devoted  to  scientific  research  and  the  diffusion  of  knowl- 
edge, the  Pension  Office,  the  Naval  Observatory  at  George- 
town Heights,  the  Congressional  Library  (in  course  of  construction 
at  a  cost  of  $6,500,000),  the  Government  Botanical  Garden,  the 
Corcoran  Art  Gallery,  founded  by  W.  W.  Corcoran,  and 
containing  America's  most  perfect  collection  of  paintings  ;  besides 
these,  other  government  possessions  at  Washington  are  the 
Navy  Yard,  with  its  foundry  for  making  armament,  the  Congres- 
sional Cemetery,  the  United  States  Arsenal,  the  Marine  Barracks, 
the  Washington  Monument,  costing  $1,200,000,  a  white  shaft 
555  feet  high  and  592  fejet  at  the  base,  the  National  Soldiers' 
Home  and  the  National  Cemetery. 

The  Monuments  and  Statues  in  the  city  besides  those  in 
the  Capitol  are  many  in  number,  the  more  notable  being  monu- 
ments to  Lafayette,  Gartield,  and  to  the  sailors  killed  in  naval 
service,  and  a  large  group  entitled  Emancipation,  which  repre- 
sents Lincoln  holding  the  Emancipation  Proclamation- over  a  negro 
whose,  shackles  are  broken.  There  are  statues  of  Lincoln,  Gen- 
eral Jackson,  Washington  (two),  General  McPherson,  General 
Thomas,  Chief  Justice  Marshall,  Admiral  Dupont,  Admiral 


EDUCATION.  99 

Farragut,  Benjamin  Franklin,   General   Rawlins,  Martin   Luther, 

and  Professor  Henry. 

Dixie.      (See  Songs  of  the  Nation.) 

Dollar  Sign,  The.      (See  Coinage,  Coins,  etc.) 

Don't  Fire  Till    You  See  the  Whites  of   Their    Eyes. 

(See  Sayings  of  Famous  Americans.) 

Don't  Give  lip  the  Ship.  (See  Sayings  of  Famous  Ameri- 
cans.) 

Dough  Faces.      (See  Political  Parties.) 

Dred  Scott  Case. — This  was  the  case  of  Dred  Scott,  a  negro, 
who  in  1848,  brought  suit  to  test  the  question  of  his  freedom. 
He  got  a  verdict  in  his  favor,  but  the  Supreme  Court  of  Missouri 
reversed  it  on  the  appeal.  On  being  sofd  to  a  resident  of  New 
York,  Scott  sued  his  owner  in  a  United  States  Court.  The  case 
reached  the  United  States  Supreme  Court,  where  in  1857,  Chief 
Justice  Taney  gave  tlje  decision,  which  was  against  the  negro. 
The  Court  held  that  the  Constitution  did  not  regard  the  negro 
slave  as  a  citizen,  but  as  a  thing,  and  furthermore,  that  for  over 
a  century,  the  negro  possessed  no  "  rights  which  the  white  man 
was  bound  to  respect."  The  Court  also  held  that  Congress  had 
no  more  power  to  prohibit  the  carrying  of  slaves  into  any  State 
or  Territory  than  it  had  to  prohibit  the  carrying  of  horses  or 
other  property.  This  decision,  especially  its  severe  phraseology, 
created  great  excitement,  and  was  for.  a  time  suppressed  on 
account  of  the  public  agitation  of  the  slavery  question  on  the  eve 
of  the  presidential  election. 

Drys.     (See  Slang  of  Politics.) 

Dudes  and  Pharisees.     (See  Slang  of  Politics.) 

Dumb  Prophet.      (See  Presidents  of  tlw  United  States.) 

E  Pluribus  Ununi.     (See  Seals  of  the  United  States.) 

Education. 

Public  Schools.  Colleges.    . 

Private  Schools.  Manual  Training. 

Indian  Schools. 

The  Puritan  settlers  of  Massachusetts,  as  well  as  the  Dutch 
colonists  of  New  York,  had  free  schools  for  the  education  of  the 
young.  The  record  of  the  General  Court  of  Massachusetts  con- 
tains the  ordinance  of  1647,  as  follows:  "Now,  that  learning 
may  not  be  buried  in  the  graves  of  our  fathers,  every  township  in 
this  jurisdiction,  after  the  Lord  hath  increased  them  to  50  house- 
holders, shall  then  forthwith  appoint  one  within  their  town  to 
teach  ail  such  children  as  shall  resort  to  him  to  write  and  read." 


100 


EDUCATION. 


From  that  day  to  this,  the  Free-School  System  has  been 
cherished  as  one  of  the  bulwarks  of  the  national  welfare.  The 
theory  of  the  government  is  that,  since  the  people  are  the  rulers, 
every  young  person  ought  at  least  to  be  well  enough  educated  to 
make  an  intelligent  citizen,  that  is,  to  be  able  to  know  what  he 
votes  for.  He  ought  at  least  to  be  able  to  read,  or  he  might  not 
be  sure  that  he  used  the  ballot  which  he  intended.  To  this  end 
were  the  public  schools  established,  attendance  at  which  or  at 
other  schools  is,  in  most  of  the  Slates,  compulsory.  One  of  the 
first  principles  of  the  common  school  system  is  that  they  shall  be 
Non -Sectarian  (although  under  the  early  theocratic  govern- 
ment in  New  England,  the  common  schools  were  under  the  super- 
vision of  the  church),  and  that  teachers  shall  be  prohibited  from 
urging  religious  opinions  upon  the  scholars. 

On  the  other  hand,  many  Private  Schools  arc  maintained  by 


QUADRANGLE    AT    HARVARD    COLLEGE. 


the  various  religious  denominations,  both  for  younger  and  more 
advanced  scholars,  besides  colleges  for  the  education  of  young 
men  as  ministers  to  preach  the  different  ere  eds.  All  the  towns  and 
cities  of  the  country  maintain  common  schools,  whose  expenses  are 
met  by  direct  taxation,  while  most  of  the  cities  and  many  of  the 
States  support  institutions  in  the  interest  of  higher  education,  in 
which  the  tuition  is  free.  The  United  States  Government  has  never 
interfered  with  the  States  in  their  scheme  of  education,  nor  has 
the  United  States  Government  ever  established  a  national  institu- 
tion of  learning,  although  a  project  for  the  establishment  of  such 
an  institution  has  within  a  few  years  been  put  forward. 

A   National    Bureau    of  Education,  however,  has  been 
established,  but  its  duties  are  chiefly  in  the  line  of  the  collection 


EDUCATION* 


101 


of  statistical  information  regarding  the  schools  and  colleges  of  the 
country.  By  the  returns  of  the  Bureau  for  1890,  it  appeared  that 
the  number  of  pupils  enrolled  in  the  common  schools  of  the 
United  States  was  12,697,196,  and  that  there  Avas  an  average 
daily  attendance  of  8,144,938.  The  average  length  of  a  school 
term  was  134-^  days.  To  maintain  this  system  of  common 
schools  the  sum  of  $140,277,484  was  expended,  of  which  $91,- 
683,338  was  for  the  school  superintendents  and  teachers.  The 
average  expense  per  capita  of  population  was  $2.24.  The  per 
capita  expense  was  smallest  in  South  Carolina,  where  it  was 
$0.41  ;  it  was  largest  in  California,  where  it  was  $4.29. 

The  Largest  Percentage  Enrolled  of  population  was  in 


UNIVERSITY    OF    MICHIGAN,     ANN    ARBOR,     MICH. 

Kansas,  where  it  was  27.98.  The  smallest  percentage  of  popula- 
tion enrolled  was  in  Wyoming,  where  it  was  11.62.  The  average 
population  -enrolled  was  20.27.  The  number  of  colleges  of 
liberal  arts  and  universities  in  1890  was  415,  and  the  number  of 
students  in -the  several  departments  of  these  institutions  was 
118,581.  The  number  of  professors  and  instructors  was  7,918. 
The  permanent  productive  funds  of  these  institutions  was  $74,- 
070,415,  the  value  of  their  grounds  and  buildings  was  $64,259,- 
o44,  the  value  of  their  scientilic  apparatus  was  $8,635,385.  There" 
was  paid  by  the  students  for  instruction  $3,764,984,  an  average 
of  $31.75.  The  total  income,  including  that  from  tuition,  State 
or  municipal  aid,  and  from  productive  funds,  was  $10,801,918  ; 
the  total  benefactions  was  $6,006,474. 

Manual  Training.  — -  The  introduction  of  manual  training 
into  the  scheme  of  education  in  the  United  States,  marks  a  long 
step  forward.  The  idea  of  a  high  school  of  manual  training 


102  EDUCATION. 

originated  in  Boston  in  1877.  It  was  the  conception  of  Prof. 
John  D.  Runkle,  then  president  of  the  Massachusetts  Institute  of 
Technology.  Prof.  Runkle  caught  the  idea  of  a  manual  training 
school  of  a  higher  grade  from  certain  school  exhibits  made  by 
some  of  the  European  nations  in  the  Centennial  Exhibition  in 
Philadelphia  in  1876,  which  greatly  interested  him  at  the  time. 
Two  years  later,  viz.,  in  1879,  the  St.  Louis  manual  training 
school  connected  with  the  Washington  University  of  that  city 
was  established.  Since  that  time  schools  of  a  like  character  have 
been  established  in  Baltimore,  Philadelphia,  Cleveland,  Toledo, 
and  other  cities,  while  the  public  high  schools  of  many  other 
places  (between  forty  and  fifty  in  all)  have  taken  on  manual 
training  as  a  new  branch  of  study.  Meanwhile,  endowed  or 
private  schools,  planned  on  the  St.  Louis  model,  have  been  multi- 
plied, the  most  conspicuous  example  being  the  Chicago  manual 
training  school. 

The  Plan  of  the  Schools  is  to  devote  two  fifths  of  the  time 
of  the  students  to  shop  work,  to  drawing  one  fifth,  and  the  other 
two  fifths  to  appropriate  studies.  Practical  instruction  in  wood- 
working, wood-turning,  blacksmithing,  iron-working,  the  use  of 
tools,  mechanical  drawing,  etc.,  is  given  to  boys  of  from  thir- 
teen to  eighteen  years.  The  schools  are  supplied  with  the 
latest  machinery  and  are  officered  by  competent  instructors.  The 
manual  training  idea  is  growing,  and  in  a  few  years  all  the  large 
cities  and  towns  will  have  adopted  it,  for  the  reason  that  it  fur- 
nishes what  the  public  school  does  not,  practical  education. 

Indian  Schools. — The  policy  of  the  government  in  trying 
to.  accomplish  the  civilization  of  the  next  generation  of  Indians, 
an  object  in  gaining  which  they  are  assisted  by  many  religious 
bodies,  is  apparent  from  the  increase  both  in  the  number  of  the 
schools  and  of  the  students  in  attendance.  All  the  government 
reservations  have  Indian  schools.  Government  Schools  are 
situated  at  Carlisle,  Pa.,  Chemawa,  Ore.,  Ft.  Stevenson,  N.  D., 
Chilocco,  Ind.  T.,  Genoa,  Neb.,  Lawrence,  Ivans., xAibuquerque, 
N.  M.,  Grand  Junction,  Col.,  Santa  Fe,  N.  M.,  Carson,  Nov., 
Pierre,  S.  D.,  and  Fort  Mohave,  Ariz.  The  enrollment  in  1801 
varied  from  778  at  Carlisle,  Pa.,  to  81  at  Pierre,  S.  D.  The 
total  enrollment  in  1891  was  11,449  ;  in  1887  it  was  9,962.  The 
average  attendance  was  8,399;  in  1887,  it  was  7,172.  In  the 
maintenance  of  these  schools  the  government  spends  annually 
upwards  of  $400,000.  Many  Indian  schools  are  conducted  also 
under  the  auspices  of  the  Presbyterians,  Roman  Catholics,  Congre- 
gationalists,  Episcopalians,  Friends,  Mennonites,  Unitarians,  Luth- 
erans, and  Methodists,  besides  others  at  Martinsburg,  Pa.,  Alaska, 
Middletown,  Cal.,  Hampton,  Ya.,  and  Lincoln,  Neb.  For  all  of 


104  ELECTORAL    COMMISSION. 

these  the  government  makes  appropriations,  aggregating  in  1892 
$604,240.  This  is  the  only  instance  where  a  Sectarian  Insti- 
tution receives  government  support.  While  this  course  is  con- 
trary to  the  letter  and  spirit  of  the  Constitution,  it  is  held  that 
the  churches  are  accomplishing  with  the  Indian  what  the  gov- 
ernment would  not  be  able  to  accomplish  so  well,  and  for  this 
reason,  they  should  be  allowed  to  continue  their  good  work.  How- 
ever, there  are  many  who  believe  the  government  should  assume 
absolutely  the  education  of  the  Indians,  and  should  train  them  in 
government  schools  with  the  specific  end  of  fitting  them  for  citi- 
zenship. 

Eggs,  Production  Of.      (See  Agriculture.) 

Elastic  Clause  in  Constitution. —  This  is  the  eighteenth 
clause  in  Article  I.,  Section  8,  which  in  outlining  the  powers 
granted  to  Congress  concludes  as  follows  :  "  To  make  all  laws 
which  shall  be  necessary  and  proper  for  carrying  into  execution 
the  foregoing  powers,  and  all  other  powers  vested  by  this  Consti- 
tution in  the  government  of  the  United  States,  or  in  an}-  depart- 
ment or  officer  thereof."  It  was  in  the  interpretation  of  this 
clause  that  the  differences  between  the  Federalists  and  the  Anti- 
Federalists  had  their  origin,  and  irt  general  it  may  be  said  that 
the  application  of  this  clause  marks  the  dividing  line  between  the 
opposing  principles  of  the  Republican  and  Democratic  parties. 
(See  Constructionist,  Strict  and  Loose.) 

Electoral  College.      (See  How  the  President  Is  Elected.) 

Electoral  Commission,  The.  (See  Republican  Party.)  — 
In  1876,  there  being  a  dispute  over  the  presidential  election,  the 
Electoral  Commission  was  created  by  Congress  to  pass  upon  the 
returns.  The  dispute  arose  over  the  electoral  votes  of  Florida, 
Louisiana,  Oregon,  and  South  Carolina.  The  members  of  the 
Commission  were  (Democrats  in  Italic,  Republicans  in  Roman)  : 
Senators  —  George  F.  Edmunds,  Vermont ;  Oliver  P.  Morton, 
Indiana  ;  Frederick  T.  Frelinghuysen,  New  Jersey  ;  Thomas  F. 
Bayard,  Delaware ;  AUen  G.  Thurman,  Ohio  (the  latter  having 
become  ill,  Francis  Kernan,  New  York,  was  substituted).  Rep- 
resentatives —  Henry  B.  Payne,  Ohio  ;  Eppa  Hunton,  Virginia  ; 
Josiah  G.  Abbott,  Massachusetts ;  James  A.  Garfield,  Ohio ; 
George  F.  Hoar,  Massachusetts;  Supreme  Court — Nathan 
Clifford,  President  of  the  Commission ;  William  Strong,  Samuel 
F.  Miller,  Stephen  J.  Field. 

All  of  these  members  were  designated  by  Congress.  The  fifth 
Supreme  Court  judge  was  Joseph  P.  Bradley,  a  Republican,  who 
was  selected  by  the  commission.  There  were  eight  Republicans 
and  seven  Democrats  on  the  Commission,  and  the  vote  on  all  the 


EMANCIPATION    PROCLAMATION.  105 

disputed  questions  was  a  strictly  party  one,  and  was  decided  in 
every  case  in  favor  of  the  Republicans. 

The  Argument  of  the  Republican  counsel  was  in  effect  that 
the  Commission  did  not  have  power  to  go  behind  returns  which 
appeared  to  have  been  made  in  due  form,  and  that  it  was  em- 
powered to  canvass  only  electoral  votes,  not  popular  votes.  The 
House  refused  to  accept  the  report  of  the  Commission,  on  a  party 
vote,  and  the  Senate  accepted  it,  also  on  a  party  vote.  On  a 
concurrent  vote,  Hayes  was  declared  elected,  and  was  duly  in- 
stalled in  office.  The  Forty-Ninth  Congress,  in  Cleveland's 
administration,  passed  the  Electoral  Count  Act,  which  permits 
Congress  to  go  behind  the  returns  only  when  a  State  cannot  settle 
its  own  disputes  over  elections. 

Electoral  Count  Act.      (See  Electoral  Commission.) 

Emancipation  Proclamation.  —  President  Lincoln  issued  a 
proclamation  to  the  States  in  rebellion  on  Sept.  22,  1862,  declar- 
ing that  he  would  free  their  slaves  unless  they  returned  to  their 
allegiance  by  Jan.  1,  1863.  True  to  his  word,  on  Jan.  1,  1863, 
he  issued  the  Emancipation  Proclamation ;  it  offered  to  receive 
the  freedmen  into  the  Federal  service,  and  warned  them  to  abstain 
from  violence  and  disorder.  Lincoln  said  in  the  Proclamation 
that  his  act  was  prompted  by  "  military  necessity." 

The  full  text  of  the  Proclamation  is  as  follows :  — 

THE  EMANCIPATION  PROCLAMATION. 

BY  THE  PRESIDENT  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES  OF  AMERICA. 
A  PROCLAMATION. 

WHEREAS,  on  the  twenty-second  day  of  September,  in  the  year  of  our 
Lord  one  thousand  eight  hundred  and  sixty-two,  a  proclamation  was 
issued  by  the  President  of  the  United  States,  containing,  among  other 
things,  the  following,  to  wit:  — 

"  That  on  the  first  day  of  January,  in  the  year  of  our  Lord  one  thou- 
sand eight  hundred  and  sixty-three,  all  persons  held  as  slaves  within  any 
State  or  designated  part  of  a  State,  the  people  whereof  shall  then  be  in 
rebellion  against  the  United  States,  shall  be  then,  thenceforward,  and 
forever  free ;  and  the  Executive  Government  of  the  United  States,  includ- 
ing the  military  and  naval  authority  thereof,  will  recognize  and  maintain 
the  freedom  of  such  persons,  and  will  do  no  act  or  acts  to  repress  such 
persons,  or  any  of  them,  in  any  efforts  they  may  make  for  their  actual 
freedom. 

"That  the  Executive  will,  on  the  first  day  of  January  aforesaid,  by 
proclamation,  designate  the  States  and  parts  of  States,  if  any,  in  which 
the  people  thereof,  respectively,  shall  then  be  in  rebellion  against  the 
United  States;  and  the  fact  that  any  State,  or  the  people  thereof,  shall 
on  that  day  be  in  good  faith,  represented  in  the  Congress  of  the  United 
States,  by  members  chosen  thereto  at  elections  wherein  a  majority  of  the 
qualified  voters  of  such  State  shall  have  participated,  shall,  in  the 
absence  of  strong  countervailing  testimony,  be  deemed  conclusive  evi- 


106  KMBARGO    ACT. 

donee  that  such  State,  and  the  people  thereof,  ape  not  then  in  rebellion 
against  the  United  States." 

Now,  therefore,  1,  Abraham  Lincoln,  President  of  the  United  States, 
by  virtue  of  the  power  in  me  vested  as  Commander-in-Chief  of  the  Army 
and  Navy  of  the  United  States  in  time  of  actual  armed  rebellion  against 
the  authority  and  government  of  the  United  States,  and  as  a  fit  and  neces- 
sary war  measure  for  suppressing  said  rebellion,  do,  on  this  first  day  of 
January,  in  the  year  of  our  Lord  one  thousand  eight  hundred  and  sixty- 
three,  and  in  accordance  with  my  purpose  so  to  do,  publicly  proclaimed 
for  the  full  period  of  one  hundred  days  from  the  day  of  first  above-men- 
tioned, order  and  designate,  as  the  States  and  parts  of  States  wherein 
the  people  thereof,  respectively,  are  this  day  in  rebellion  against  the 
United  States,  the  following,  to  wit:  Arkansas,  Texas.  Louisiana  (except 
the  parishes  of  St.  Bernard,  'Placquemines,  Jefferson,  St.  John,  St' 
Charles,  St.  James,  Ascension,  Assumption,  Terre  Bonne,  Lafourche, 
Ste.  Marie,  St.  Martin  and  Orleans,  including  the  city  of  New  Orleans), 
Mississippi,  Alabama,  F'lorida,  Georgia,  South  Carolina,  North  Carolina, 
and  Virginia  (except  the  forty-eight  counties  designated  as  West  Vir- 
ginia, and  also  the  counties  of  Berkley,  Accomac,  Northampton,  Eliza- 
beth City,  York,  Princess  Anne,  and  Norfolk,  including  the  cities  of 
Norfolk  and  Portsmouth),  and  which  excepted  parts  are,  for  the  present, 
left  precisely  as  if  this  proclamation  were  not  issued. 

And  by  virtue  of  the  power  and  for  the  purpose  aforesaid,  I  do  order 
and  declare  that  all  persons  held  as  slaves  within  said  designated  States 
and  parts  of  States  are,  and  henceforward  shall  be  f ree ;  and  that  the 
Executive  Government  of  the  United  States,  including  the  military  and 
naval  authorities  thereof,  will  recognize  and  maintain  the  freedom  of 
said  persons. 

And  I  hereby  enjoin  upon  the  people  so  declared  to  be  free,  to  abstain 
from  all  violence,  unless  in  necessary  self-defence;  and  I  recommend  to 
them  that,  in  all  cases  when  allowed,  they  labor  faithfully  for  reason- 
able wages. 

And  I  further  declare  and  make  known  that  such  persons,  of  suitable 
condition,  will  be  received  into  the  armed  service  of  the  United  States, 
to  garrison  forts,  positions,  stations,  and  other  places,  and  to  man  ves- 
sels of  all  sorts  in  said  service. 

And  upon  this  act,  sincerely  believed  to  be  an  act  of  justice,  warranted 
by  the  Constitution,  upon  military  necessity,  I  invoke  the  considerate 
judgment  of  mankind  and  the  gracious  favor  of  Almighty  God. 

In  witness  whereof  I  have  hereunto  set  myname  and  caused  the  seal 
of  the  United  States  to  be  affixed. 

Done  at  the  City  of  Washington,  this  first  day  of  January,  in 
/  — • —  ,  the  year  of  our  Lord  one  thousand  eight  hundred  and  sixty- 
<  L.S.  >  three,  and  of  the  Independence  of  the  United  States  of  America 
'  —v—  '  the  eighty-seventh. 

By  the  President:  ABKAHAM  LINCOLN. 

WILLIAM  H.  SEWARD,  Secretary  of  State. 

The  total  number  of  slaves  thus  emancipated  was  3,895,172. 

Embargo  Act. —  An  embargo  is  the  detention  of  the  vessels 
of  a  nation  in  port,  and  is  promulgated  by  the  government  as  a 
measure  of  precaution  and  protection,  as  well  as  of  retaliation.  In 
June,  1807,  the  British  frigate  Leopard  took  four  seamen  from 
the  United  States  frigate  Chesapeake.  The  orders  in  council  of  the 


EXPORTS    AND    IMPORTS.  107 

British  government  to  the  English  navy  had  been  to  search  all 
neutral  vessels  for  French  goods.  The  United  States  at  the  time 
was  a  neutral  country.  President  Jefferson,  by  proclamation, 
warned  all  British  armed  vessels  not  to  enter  American  ports. 
When  Congress  met  in  October,  the  President  advised  a  bill 
which  was  passed,  prohibiting  all  American  vessels  from  all 
foreign  trade,  and  foreign  vessels  from  carrying  cargoes  from  the 
United  States. 

This  was  called  the  Embargo  Bill,  and  operated  disastrously 
to  the  commerce  of  the  country.  The  Federalists  opposed  it  on 
the  ground  that  it  would  injure  this  country  rather  than  England, 
ana  would  enhance  the  commercial  disaster  which  England's 
attacks  on  American  commerce  had  already  begun.  Intense  op- 
position to  the  Embargo  was  manifested  in  New  England,  where 
the  foreign  trade  was  extensive.  On  account  of  it,  John  Quiuey 
Adams  resigned  as  Senator  from  Massachusetts.  Jefferson  was 
then  informed  that  New  England  would  no  longer  enforce  the 
Embargo  Act,  and  that  there  was  talk  in  that  section  of  with- 
drawing from  the  Union.  Accordingly,  Jefferson  secured  the 
passage  of  the  Non-Intercourse  Act  (which  see^,  by  which  the 
Embargo  was  repealed.  The  new  act  related  only  to  commerce 
with  England  and  France,  and  was  not  so  broad  in  its  construction 
as  the  Embargo  Act,  yet  it  retained  the  essence  of  it,  so  far  as 
the  measure  related  to  England. 

Enemies  in  War,  in  Peace  Friends.  (See  Sayings  of 
Famous  Americans.) 

England  a  Den  of  Pirates,  France  a  Den  of  Thieves. 

(See  Sayings  of  Famous  Americans.) 

Entangling  Alliances.  (See  Sayings  of  Famous  Ameri- 
cans.) 

Equal  Rights  Party.  (See  Political  Parties.) 
Era  of  Good  Feeling. —  Used  to  mark  the  period  from  1817 
to  1823,  when  party  feeling  was  at  a  low  ebb.  The  Federals 
were  inactive,  many  of  them  openly  sympathizing  with  the  ad- 
ministration. So  apathetic  were  the  Federals  that  Monroe,  in  the 
election  of  1821,  received  all  the  electoral  votes  but  one. 

Executive  Department.     (See  Federal  Government.) 
Executive  Session.      (See  Federal  Government.) 
Expenses   Of  the   White   House.      (See  Presidents  of   the 
United  States.) 

Exports  and  Imports. —  The  extraordinary  transportation 
facilities  of  this  country,  more  than  any  other  one  thing,  have 
built  up  the  export  trade.  The  wheat  and  corn  and  wheat  flour, 


108 


EXPORTS    AND    IMPORTS. 


the  beef  and  hog  products  of  the  great  Northwest  and  West 
reach  the  exporting  point  by  way  of  the  Great  Lakes,  the  Erie 
Canal,  and  the  Hudson  River,  which  form  a  continuous  water-way 
from  the  producing  centre  to  the  metropolis.  A  large  part  of  the 
cotton  and  tobacco  of  the  South  is  exported  by  way  of  the  Southern 
ports,  but  for  all  other  staples,  New  York  is  the  place  of  export. 

The  Chief  Exports,  and  the  value  thereof,  including  gold  and 
silver,  for  the  year  ending  June  30,  1891,  were:  — 


50,768,213 
55,131,948 
11,344,304 

924,312 
1,474.727 
38,562 

2,907,358,795 

135,207 
8,736,080 

1,816,057 
633,344,851 
3,072,022 
91,415,095 
618,404,454 

66,366,003 
507,229,428 
1,179,565,831 
82,217,778 

20,773,884 

1,904,072 
12,243,021 
4,495,475 
108,228,620 
249,232,605 

32,93T.,(>M; 
1,820,470 
17,652,C87 
51,420,272 
54,705,616 
4,343,081 
4,901,120 
6,545,354 
1,580,164 
3,796,495 
4,594,531 
7,260,893 
4,614,597 
290,712,898 
13,604,857 
1,136,107 
4,996,621 
1,504,740 
476,897 
1,957,896 
3,236,705 
2,327,474 
1,575,444 
28,909,614 
13,278,847 
1,326,389 
3,523,473 
7,452,094 
1,281,783 
5,876,452 
46,150,282 
4,302,936 
1,299,169 
3,714,649 
£5,088,315 
84,908,698 
8,114,154 
1,042,524 
9,863,780 
1,575,039 
925,860 
1,887,431 
4,668,140 
768,306 
6,138,746 
21,033,759 
4,186,713 
1,335,975 
26,263,014 
26,435,006 

Books,  Maps,  Engravings,  and  other  Printed  Matter 

bush, 
bush, 
.bbls. 

Wheat                                 

Wheat  Flour                            

All  other                      

.ton? 

..tons 

.  tons 

..Ibs. 

Fish                   

.bbls 

.  Iba. 

Instruments  for  Scientific  purposes  

.bbls. 

Oil  Cake,  Oil  Cake  Meal  

..Ibs. 

galls, 
galls, 
galls. 

Oils,  Vegetable  

Paraftine,  Paraffine  Wax  

..Ibs. 

Provisions,  Beef  Products  

..Ibs. 

,            Hog  Products  

..Ibs 

,,            Oleomargarine  

..Ibs. 

,           Other  Meat  Products  

Seeds  :  Clover  

..ibs. 

Spirits  proof 

sail?, 
galls, 
galls. 
..Ibs. 

,,       Turpentine  

Sugar,  Molasses,  Syrup  

,,      Refined  

Tobacco,  Unmanufactured  

..Ibs 

,,         Manufactures  of  

Vegetables  

Wood,  and  Manufactures  of  

All  Other  Articles  *  

Total  Exports,  Domestic  Merchandise  

$872,270,283 

Specie  :  Gold  

$84,939,551 
98,973.265 

„        Silver  

Total  Domestic  Exports  .  .  . 

SI  0-ifi  18.T(Wa 

The  total  exports  of  agricultural,  mining,  forest  products,  and 
manufactures,    were    as    follows:  —  Agriculture,    $642,800,703; 


EXPORTS    AVT>   IMPORTS. 


109 


mining,  $22,058,664;    forest,  $28,715,713;   manufactures,  $168,- 
781,255. 

The  exports  of  Domestic  Merchandise  alone  were  in  1890, 
$845,293,828;  in  1889,1730,282,609;  in  1888,1683,862,104;  in 
1887,  $703,022,923.  In  1875,  the  aggregate  was  $499,284,100. 
Great  Britain  and  Ireland  took  in  1891,  $441,599,807  of  our  ex- 
ports; Germany,  $91,684,981  ;  France,  $59,826,739.  The  other 
foreign  countries  took  our  merchandise  as  follows:  — 


Argentine  Republic $2,718,075 

Australasia,  British 12,891,679 

Belgium 26,694,150 

Brazil 14,049,273 

British  East  Indies 4,399,544 

British  West  Indies  9,546,058 

Canada,  Dominion  of 36,052,613 

Central  American  States 6,579,916 

Chile • 3,133,991 

China 8,700,308 

Colombia 3,108,989 

Cuba ll,!i29,G05 

Denmark 3,306,357 

Hawaiian  Islands 4,935,911 


Haiti ...: $5,589,178 

Hong  Kong 4,743,498 

Italy 15,927,274 

Japan 4,800,650 

Mexico 14,199,080 

Netherlands 23,816,814 

Peru 1,396,207 

Portugal 4,986,909 

Russia  and  Possessions 7,925,092 

Spain 14,607,893 

Sweden  and  Norway 4,939,572 

Uruguay 1,032,937 

Venezuela 4,716,047 


Now  that  the  restrictions  against  American  Hogs  in  Ger- 
many and  France  have  been  removed,  the  export  business  in  hog 
products  will  be  increased  largely.  The  export  trade  with  South 
American  countries  is  increasing  in  volume,  thanks  to  favorable 
reciprocity  treaties  recently  negotiated.  (See  Reciprocity.) 

The  Import  Trade  of  the  United  States  for  the  year  ending 
June  30, 1891,  including  merchandise  and  Specie  imported, aggre- 
gated $899,408,210.  The  imports  and  the  value  thereof  were  as 
follows :  — 


Animals 

Art  Works 

Books,  Maps,  etc 

Bristles  ..................................................  IDS. 

Breadstuff's  ........................ 

Chemicals,  Drugs,  Dyes,  and  Medicines 

Chicks  and  Watches 

Coal,  Bituminous  ......................................  tons 

Coffee  ...  ................................................  Ibs. 

Cotton,  Manufactures  of 
Earthenware  and  China 
Fancy  Articles  ......... 

Fi  h 


Flax,  Hemp,  Jute,  etc.,  and  Manufactures  of  ............... 

Fruits  and  Nuts  .............................................. 

Furs  and  Manufactures  of  ................................... 

(ilass  and  Glu-sware  ____  ..................................... 

Hats  and  Bo  incts  ............................................ 

Hides  and  Skins  ........................................... 

Hops  ....................................................  Ibs. 

India  Rubber  and  Manufactures  of  ........................ 

Iron  and  Steel  and  Manufactures  of  ....................... 

Jewelry,  and  Manufactures  of  Gold  and  Silver  ............. 

Lead  and  Manufactures  of  .................................. 

Leather  and  Manufactures  of  ............................... 

Liquors,  Spirituous  and  Malt  .....................   .......... 

Molasses  ...............................................  galte. 

Musical  Instruments  ......................................... 

Paints  and  Colors  ............................................ 

Paper  and  Manufactures  .................................... 


1,404,8:<2 


1,055,009 
519,528,432 


4,019,603 


20,604,463 


§4,945,365 

2,410,36& 

4,227,403 

1,357,938 

4,484,445 

47,317,031 

2,2S4,SM)6 

3,588,273 

96,123,777 

29,712,024 

8,381,388 

7,326,473 

5,044.628 

30,005,100 

25,983,136 


8,364,312 
2,222,600 

27,930,759 
1,797,406 

18,375,449 

55,974,531 
1,363,892 
2,560,886 

12,683,303 
3,975,438 
2,659,172 
1,444,755 
1,439,127 
3,031,454 


110 


FEDERAL    GOVERNMENT. 


$5,018,248 

Precious  Stones,  and  Imitations  of,  not  set,  including 

13,271,002 

Salt                   '     .             »  .  .  Ibs. 

511,586,163 

928,88!) 

3,266,230 

37,880,143 

19,077,3Ct; 

Siilrar     .                                                    Iks- 

3,483,477,222 

105,728,21(i 

Tea                                     Ibs. 

83,453,339 

13,8'_'8,'.1!I3 

Tin                           Ibs. 

3'J,787,622 

7,977,545 

16,763,141 

10,007,  OW  > 

19,888,186 

59,291,4.72 

105,145,273 

Total  Merchandise  

§844,916,196 

$18,232,567 

,          Silver  

36,259,447 

Total  Tmnorts... 

S899.408.210 

The  imports  of  domestic  merchandise  alone  were  in  1890 
$789,310,409;  in  1889,  $745,131,65-2 ;  in  1888,  $723,957,114 ;  in 
1887,  $692,319,768  ;  in  1875,  the  aggregate  was  $533,005,436. 

Exterritoriality. —  This  is  a  privilege  accorded  to  diplomatic 
agents  under  the  law  of  nations,  by  which  they  are  allowed  to 
live  under  the  laws  of  their  own  country  while  accredited  to 
a  foreign  nation.  Their  persons,  families,  estates,  and  servants 
are  inviolable  except  in  an  extreme  case,  such  as  a  heinous  crime. 
In  the  case  of  ordinary  crimes,  the  expectation  is  that  the  home 
government  will  at  once  recall  the  offender,  and  punish  him. 

F.  F.  V.'s. —  An  abbreviation  of  "First  Families  of  Virginia," 
used  as  referring  to  the  Southern  aristocrats,  and  sometimes, 
improperly,  to  those  of  the  North. 

Farm  Animals  in  the  United  States.      (See  Agriculture.) 

Farmers'  Alliance.      (See  Political  Parties.) 

Farmer's  Dick.      (See  Nicknames  of  Famous  Americans.) 

Father  Abraham.      (See  Presidents  of  the  United  States.) 

Father  of  His  Country.  (See  Presidents  of  the  United 
States.) 

Father  of  the  Constitution.     (See  Presidents  of  the  United 

States.) 

Federal  Government,  The,  Its  Officers  and  Departments. 


The  President, 

The  Cabinet, 

State  Department, 

Treasury  Department, 

War  Department, 

Justice, 

Post-Office  Department, 


Circuit  Courts,  etc. 


Navy  Department. 

Presidential  Succession. 

Senate. 

House  of  Representatives. 

Speaker. 

Judiciary. 

Supreme  Court, 


FEDERAL    GOVERNMENT.  Ill 

By  the  Constitution,  the  administration  of  government  in  the 
United  States  is  vested  in  three  departments,  the  Executive,  the 
Legislative,  and  the  Judicial. 

Executive,  The.  —  The  Executive  Department  is  charged 
with  the  execution  of  the  laws,  and  the  President  is  at  its  head. 
The  President  must  be  a  natural  born  citizen,  or  a  citizen  at  the 
adoption  of  the  Constitution.  He  must  be  at  least  thirty-five 
years  of  age,  and  fourteen  years  a  resident  of  the  country.  He 
is  Commander-in-Chief  of  the  army  and  navy,  and  of  the' 
militia  when  in  actual  service  ;  he  has  power  of  reprieve  and  of 
pardon  for  offences  against  the  United  -States  ;  to  niake  treaties, 
to  appoint  ambassadors,  ministers,  consuls,  etc.,  and  judges  of  the 
Supreme  Court,  and  all  other  United  States  officers,  but  always 
with  the  consent  and  approval  of  the  Senate.  He  must  give  to 
Congress  from  time  to  time  information  of  the  state  of  the  Union, 
and  recommend  such  measures  as  he  deems  best ;  he  may  convene 
both  Houses  on  extraordinary  occasions,  and  may  adjourn  them 
at  such  times.  He  must  see  that  the  laws  are  faithfully  executed. 
His  appointments  are  subject  to  Senate  approval  by  a  majority 
vote ;  his  treaty-making  by  a  majority  vote.  The  salary  of  the 
President  is  now  $50,000  a  year. 

In  the  event  of  the  President's  Inability,  by  death  or  other- 
wise, to  perform  his  duties,  the  office  devolves  upon  the  Vice- 
President.  In  case  of  inability  on  the  part  of  both  President  and 
Vice-President,  by  Act  of  Congress  of  January  19,  1886,  the 
Executive  office  falls  to  the  Cabinet  officers  in  the  following 
order,  provided  the  officer  on  whom  it  devolves  has  been  con- 
firmed by  the  Senate,  and  is  by  birth  and  otherwise  qualified  to 
hold  the  office  :  The  Secretaries  of  State,  of  the  Treasury,  of 
War,  the  Attorney-General,  the  Postmaster-General,  the  Secre- 
taries of  the  Navy,  of  the  Interior..  The  officer  thus  selected 
serves  out  the  unexpired  term. 

The  President,  Vice-President,  and  the  Cabinet  are  as 
follows :  — 

Benjamin  Harrison,  of  Indiana,  President;  salary, 
§50,000. 

Levi  P.  Morton,  of  New  York,  Vice-President;  sal- 
ary, $8,000. 

The  Cabinet.  - —  James  G.  Elaine,  of  Maine,  Secretary  of 
State;  Charles  Foster,  of  Ohio,  Secretary  of  the  Treasury; 
Stephen  B.  Elkins,  of  West  Virginia,  Secretary  of  War  ;  John 
Wftnamaker,  of  Pennsylvania,  Postmaster-  General ;  William  H. 
H.  Miller,  of  Indiana,  Attorney-  General ;  Benjamin  F.  Tracy,  of 
New  York,  Secretary  of  the  Navy  ;  John  W.  Noble,  of  Missouri, 
Secretary  of  the  Interior;  Jeremiah  M.  Rusk,  of  Wisconsin, 
Secretary  of  Agriculture  ;  salary,  $8,000  each. 


112 


FEDERAL    GOVERNMENT. 


State  Department.  —  This  department  was  created  by  Act 
of  Congress  July  27,  1789.  Its  principal  officer  is  the  Secretary 
of  State,  who  is  a  Cabinet  officer.  His  business  has  to  do  with 
the  correspondence,  commissions  or  instructions  to  or  with  public 
ministers  and  consuls  of  the  United  States,  or  to  negotiations 
with  public  ministers  from  foreign  states,  or  princes,  or  to  memo- 
rials, or  other  applications  from  foreign  public  ministers  or  other 
foreigners,  to  such  other  matters  respecting  foreign  affairs  as  the 
President  should  assign  to  the  department,  the  business  thereof 
to  be  conducted  in  such  manner  as  the  President  should  from 
time  to  time  order ;  the  receipt  and  publication  of  the  laws  passed 
by  Congress,  and  to  affix  the  seal  of  the  United  States  to  civil 
communications.  He  is  the  custodian  of  the  Seal  of  the  United 
States.  He  is  the  custodian  of  the  treaties  made  with  foreign 
states  and  of  the  laws  of  the  United  States ;  grants  and  issues 
passports ;  publishes  the  laws  and  resolutions  of  Congress,  amend- 
ments to  the  Constitution,  and  proclamations  declaring  the  admis- 
sion of  new  States  into  the  Union.  The  Subordinate  Depart- 
ments under  his  supervision  are  the  Diplomatic  Bureau,  the 

Consular  Bureau, 
the  Indexes  and 
Archives,  and  the 
Bureau  of  Ac- 
counts. There  are 
three  Assistant 
S  e  c  r  e  t  a  r  ies  of 
State,  as  follows : 
Assistant  Secre- 
t  a  r  y  ,  W.  F. 
Wharton,  Massa- 
chusetts, $4,500 ; 
Second  Assistant 
Secretary,  A.  A. 
Adee,  District  of 
Columbia,  $3,500; 
Third  Assistant 
Secretary,  William 
M.  Grinnell,  New 
York,  $3,500. 

Treasury  De- 
partment.    (See 

Coinage,  National  Banks,  Tariffs,  Government  Finances,  etc.)  — 
This  was  one  of  the  three  original  executive  departments  of  the  gov- 
ernment, having  been  established  on  September  2, 1789.  Its  head 
is  the  Secretary  of  the  Treasury,  who  is  a  member  of  the  Cabinet. 


FEDERAL    GOVERNMENT 


114  FEDERAL    GOVERNMENT. 

This  official  has  charge  of  the  fiscal  system  of  the  government,  of 
the  national  banks,  of  the  currency  and  coinage,  of  customs  and 
internal  revenues,  of  the  light-house  and  life-saving  systems,  of 
the  merchant  marine,  the  coast  and  inland  surveys,  the  marine 
hospitals,  and  the  inspection  of  steam  vessels.  The  principal 
officers  of  the  department  are  as  follows  :  — 

Assistant  Secretary,  A.  B.  Nettleton,  $4,500 ;  Assistant  /Sec- 
retary, Oliver  L.  Spaulding,  $4,500 ;  Assistant  /Secretary,  L. 
Crounse,  Nebraska,  $4,500;  Director  of  Mint,  Edward  O.  Leech, 
District  of  Columbia,  $4,500  ;  /Superintendent  of  Life- Savin;/ 
Service,  S.  I.  Kimball,  $4,000  ;  Chairman  of  Lighthouse  Hoard, 
Commissioner  J.  A.  Greer,  $5,000  ;  /Supervisor  Surgeon-  General, 
Walter  Wyman,  Missouri,  $4,000 ;  Chairman  of  Bureau  of 
Engraving,  M.  "W.  Meredith,  Illinois,  $4,500  ;  Supervising  Ar- 
chitect, W.  J.  Edbrooke,  $4,500  ;  Superintendent  of  United  States 
Coast  Survey,  T.  C.  Mendenhall,  $6,000 ;  Commissioner  of 
Navigation,  William  W.  Bates,  $3,600  ;  First  Comptroller,  A. 
C.  Matthews,  Illinois,  $5,000 ;  Second  Comptroller,  B.  F.  Gilke- 
son,  Pennsylvania,  $5,000 ;  Comptroller  of  Customs,  Samuel 
V.  Holliday,  Pennsylvania,  $4,000 ;  First  Auditor,  Geo.  P. 
Fisher,  Delaware,  $3,600 ;  Second  Auditor,  J.  N.  Patterson, 
New  Hampshire,  $3,600  ;  Third  Auditor,  W.  H.  Hart,  Indiana, 
$8,600 ;  Fourth  Auditor,  John  R.  Lynch,  Mississippi,  $3,600 ; 
Fifth  Auditor,  L.  W.  Habercomb,  District  of  Columbia,  $3,600  ; 
Sixth  Auditor,  Thos.  B.  Coulter,  Ohio,  $3,600 ;  Treasurer  of 
United  States,  E.  H.  Nebeker,  Indiana,  $6,000  ;  Assistant  Treas- 
urer, J.  W.  Whelpley,  New  York,  $3,600  ;  Register  of  Treasury, 
W.  S.  Roseorans,  California,  $4,000  ;  Comptroller  of  Currency, 
Ed.  S.  Lacey,  Michigan,  $5,000  ;  Commissioner  of  Internal 
Revenue,  John  W.  Mason,  $6,000 ;  Solicitor  of  Internal  Revenue, 
Alphonso  Hart,  $4,500  ;  Solicitor  of  Treasury,  W.  P.  Hepburn, 
Iowa,  $4,500 ;  Chief  of  Secret  Service,  A.  L.  Drummond, 
$3,500. 

War  Department.  (See  Army,  The  United  States.) — This 
department  was  created  by  Act  of  Congress,  August  7,  1789. 
The  principal  officer  is  the  Secretary  of  War,  who  is  a  Cabinet 
officer.  To  him  are  intrusted  all  affairs  relating  to  the  military 
commissions ;  the  land  forces  of  the  United  States ;  the  stores 
for  the  maintenance  of  the  army  both  in  peace  and  war.  He  is 
required  to  provide  for  the  maintenance  and  course  of  study  at 
the  West  Point  Military  Academy;  to  supervise  the  National 
Cemeteries,  etc.  The  offices  and  administration  of  the  Adjutant- 
General,  the  Inspector-General,  the  Quartermaster-General,  the 
Commissary-General,  the  Paymaster-General,  the  Surgeon-Gen- 
eral, the  Chief  of  Engineers  of  the  Army,  the  Chief  of  Ordnance, 


FEDERAL    GOVERNMENT.  115 

the  Bureau  of  Military  Justice,  are  under  his  supervision.     The 
principal  officers  and  their  departments  are  as  follows  :  — 

Assistant  /Secretary,  Lewis  A.  Grant,  Minnesota,  $4,500  ;  Ad- 
jutant- General,  John  C.  Kelton,  Pennsylvania  ;  Inspector-  General, 
Joseph  C.  Breckin  ridge,  Kentucky;  Quartermaster- General, 
Richard  N.  Batchelder,  New  Hampshire  ;  Commissary-  General, 
Beekman  Du  Barry,  New  Jersey ;  Surgeon-  General,  Charles 
Sutherland,  Pennsylvania ;  Paymaster-  General,  William  Smith, 
Vermont;  Chief  of  Engineers,  Thomas  L.  Casey,  Rhode  Island; 
Chief  of  Ordnance,  Daniel  W.  Flagler,  Pennsylvania;  Acting 
Judge- Advocate-  General,  Guido  N.  Lieber,  New  York ;  Chief 
Signal  Officer,  Adolphus  W.  Greely,  Louisiana ;  Architect  of  the 
Capitol,  Edward  Clark,  Pennsylvania,  $4,500  ;  Superintendent  of 
Census,  Robert  P.  Porter,  New  York,  $6,000. 

Justice. —  This  department  was  established  by  Act  of  Con- 
gress, June  22,  1820.  Its  principal  officer  is  the  Attorney- 
General,  who  is  a  Cabinet  officer.  He  is  required  to  give  advice 
and  opinions  upon  questions  of  law,  when  required  by  the  Presi- 
dent, and  also  when  required  by  the  head  of  any  executive 
department  as  to  the  questions  of  law  arising  upon  the  adminis- 
tration of  his  department ;  to  conduct  and  argue  suits  and  writs 
of  error  and  appeals  in  the  Supreme  Court,  and  suits  in  the  Court 
of  Claims  in  which  the  United  States  Government  is  interested, 
and  also  in  any  of  the  United  States  Courts  when  deemed 
necessary.  His  subordinate  officers  are  as  follows :  Solicitor- 
General,  William  Howard  Taft,  Ohio,  $7,000 ;  Assistant 
Attorneys-  General,  John  B.  Cotton,  Maine,  William  A.  Maury, 
District  of  Columbia,  $5,000  each. 

Post-Office  Department. — This  department  of  the  govern- 
ment was  established  on  May  8,  1794.  (See  Post-Office  System, 
The.)  It  is  in  charge  of  the  Postmaster- General,  who  is  a 
Cabinet  officer.  He  superintends  the  transmission  of  the  mails; 
the  manufacture  of  postage  stamps  and  postal  cards ;  the  appoint- 
ment of  postmasters  whose  salaries  are  $1,000  and  under;  the 
establishment  of  post-offices ;  the  issue  of  money  orders  and 
postal  notes,  etc.  The  subordinate  officers  are  as  follows :  — 

First  Assistant  Postmaster-  General,  Smith  A.  Whitfield,  Ohio, 
$4,000 ;  Second  Assistant  Postmaster-  General,  J.  Lowrie  Bell, 
Pennsylvania,  $4,000 ;  Third  Assistant  Postmaster-  General, 
Abraham  D.  Hazen,  Pennsylvania,  $4,000 ;  Fourth  Assistant 
Postmaster-  General,  E.  G.  Rathbone,  Ohio,  $4,000  ;  Assistant 
Attorney-  General,  James  N.  Tyner,  Indiana,  $4,000 ;  Superin- 
tendent of  Foreign  Mails,  N.  M.  Brooks,  Virginia,  $3,000 ; 
Superintendent  of  Money  Order  System,  Charles  F.  Macdonald, 
Massachusetts,  $3,500  ;  General  Superintendent  of  Hallway  Mail 


116 


FEDERAL    GOVERNMENT. 


Service,  James  E.  White,  Illinois,  $3,500  ;  Superintendent  of 
Dead  Letter  Office,  David  P.  Leibhardt,  Indiana,  $2,250  ;  Chief 
Post-  Office  Inspector,  M.  D.  Wheeler,  New  York,  $3,000. 

Navy  Department.  (See  Navy,  The  United  States.)  — 
Until  April,  1798,  the  duties  of  this  department  were  fulfilled  by 
the  War  Department.  Its  principal  officer  is  the  Secretary  of 
the  Navy,  who  is  a  Cabinet  officer.  He  has  charge  of  the  equip- 
ment and  construction  of  naval  vessels;  their  manning  and  arma- 
ment, both  in  times  of  peace  and  war ;  of  the  contracts  for  naval 
stores  and  supplies ;  of  the  navy  yards  and  docks;  of  the  ordnance 
department;  of  the  construction  and  repairs  department;  of  the 
observance  of  the  navigation  laws,  and  of  the  disbursement  of 
the  appropriations  for  rivers  and  harbors.  The  subordinate  offi- 
cers are  as  follows  :  — 

Assistant  Secretary, '  James  Russell  Soley,  Massachusetts, 
$4,500 ;  Bureau  of  Yards  and  Docks,  Norman  H.  Farquhar, 
Pennsylvania,  $5,000  ;  Bureau  of  Navigation,  Francis  M.  Ram- 
say, District  of  Columbia,  $5,000  ;  Bureau  of  Ordnance,  William 
M.  Folger,  Ohio,  $5,000  ;  Bureau  of  Provisions  and  Clothing, 
Edwin  Stewart,  New  York,  $5,000 ;  Bureau  of  Medicine  and 
Surgery,  J.  Mills  Browne,  New  Hampshire,  $5,000  5  Bureau  of 
Construction  and  Repair,  Theodore  D.  Wilson,  New  York, 
$5,000 ;  Bureau  of  Equipment  and  Recruiting,  George  Dewey, 
Vermont,  $5,000 ;  Bureau  of  Steam  Engineering,  George  W. 
Melville,  New  York,  $5,000 ;  Judge- Advocate-  General,  Win.  B. 
Remey,  United  States  Marine  Corps,  Iowa?  $4,000  ;  President 
Naval  Retiring  Board,  Com.  U.  P.  McCann,  $5,000. 

Interior.  (See  Public  Lands,  Pension  Office,  Patent  Office, 
etc.)  —  This  department  was  created  by  Act  of  Congress,  March 
3, 1849.  Its  principal  officer  is  the  Secretary  of  the  Interior,  who 
is  a  Cabinet  officer.  To  him  is  intrusted  the  supervision  of 
public  business  relating  to  the  public  lands,  including  mines,  the 
Indians,  pension  and  bounty  lands,  patents  for  inventions, 
custody  and  distri- 
bution of  public 
documents,  educa- 
tion, railroads,  the 
public  surveys,  the 
census,  when  di- 
rected by  law,  Gov- 
ernment Hospital 
for  the  Insane,  Co- 
lumbia Asylum  for 

.1  T\  £  3  INTERIOR    DEPARTMENT.      PATENT    OFFICE. 

the     Deal     and 

Dumb,  and  certain  powers  and  duties  in  relation  to  the  Territories 


FEDERAL    GOVERNMENT.  117 

of  the  United  States ;  exclusive  control  of  Yellowstone  Park. 
The  General  Land  Office,  the  Patent  Office,  the  Pension  Office, 
the  Census  Office,  the  Bureau  of  Education,  Office  of  Commis- 
sioner of  Railroads,  the  Geological  Survey,  the  Auditor  of  Rail- 
road Accounts,  the  Inter-State  Commerce  Commission,  the 
Bureau  of  Labor,  the  Architect  of  the  Capitol,  and  the  officers  of 
the  District  of  Columbia  are  under  his  charge.  The  principal 
subordinate  officers  are  :  — 

First  Assistant  Secretary,  George  Chandler,  Kansas,  $4,500  ; 
Assistant  Secretary,  Cyrus  Bussey,  New  York,  $4,000  ;  Com- 
missioner of  Land  Office,  T.  H.  Carter,  Montana,  $4,000 ;  Com- 
missioner of  Pensions,  Green  B.  Raum,  Illinois,  $5,000  ;  Com- 
missioner of  Indian  Affairs,  T.  J.  Morgan,  Rhode  Island,  $4,000  ; 
Commissioner  of  Patents,  William  E.  Simonds,  Connecticut, 
$5,000  ;  Commissioner  of  Education^ .  T.  Harris,  Massachusetts, 
$3,000 ;  Commissioner  of  Railroads,  H.  A.  Taylor,  Wisconsin, 
$4,500 ;  Commissioner  of  Labor,  C.  D.  Wright,  Massachusetts, 
$5,000  ;  Superintendent  of  Census,  Robert  P.  Porter,  New  York, 
$6,000  ;  Director  of  Geological  Survey,  John  W.  Powell,  Illinois, 
$6,000. 

Agriculture.  (See  Signal  Service.) — This  Department  was 
established  by  Act  of  Congress,  February  11,  1889.  Its  princi- 
pal officer  is  the  Secretary  of  Agriculture.  His  duties  include 
the  collection  and  diffusion  of  useful  information  on  subjects 
connected  with  agriculture  by  books  and  correspondence,  or  by 
practical  and  scientific  experiments,  the  collection  of  statistics, 
new  and  valuable  seeds  and  plants,  the  cultivation  and  propa- 
gation of  the  same,  and  their  distribution  among  agriculturists. 
The  subordinate  offices  and  bureaus  are  the  Statistician,  the  Bot- 
anist, the  Chemist,  the  Microscopist,  the  Propagating  and  Seed 
Division,  the  Bureau  of  Animal  Industry,  the  Forestry  and  Orni- 
thological Division,  and  the  Office  of  Experiment. 

These  officers  are  as  follows  .  Assistant  Secretary,  Edwin 
Willets,  Michigan,  $4,500  ;  Chief  of  Weather  Bureau,  M.  W. 
Harrington,  Michigan  ;  Statistician,  J.  R.  Dodge,  Ohio,  $2,500  ; 
Chief  of  Forestry,  B.  E.  Fernow,  New  York,  $2,000  ;  Entomolo- 
gist, C.  V.  Riley,  Missouri,  $2,500  ;  Chemist,  Harvey  W.  Wiley, 
Indiana,  $2,500 ;  Ornithologist,  C.  H.  Merriam,  New  York,  $2,- 
500  ;  Botanist,  George  Vasey,  Illinois,  $2,500  ;  Pomologist,  H.  E. 
Van  Deman,  Kansas,  $2,500 ;  Microscopist,  Thomas  Taylor,  Massa- 
chusetts, $2,500.  In  July,  1891,  the  Signal  Service  was  trans- 
ferred from  the  War  Department  to  the  Department  of  Agriculture. 

Legislative,  The. —  By  the  Constitution  the  legislative  power 
shall  be  vested  in  a  Congress  of  the  United  States,  which  shall 
consist  of  a  Senate  and  House  of  Representatives.  The  Senate 


IIP  FEDERAL    GOVERNMENT. 

consists  of  two  members  from  each  State,  irrespective  of  the 
population.  They  are  elected  for  six  years,  and  the  salary  is 
$5,000  a  year,  with  mileage,  and  $125  for  stationery  and  news- 
papers. The  candidate  must  be  at  least  thirty  years  of  age,  nine 
years  a  citizen,  and  an  inhabitant  of  the  State  he  desires  to  rep- 
resent. The  Senate  confirms  the  appointments  by  the  President, 
ratifies  all  treaties,  tries  all  impeachments,  and  passes  or  rejects 
such  legislation  as  may  come  up  from  the  lower  House.  The 
Vice-President  is  the  Presiding  Officer.  The  Senate  does  not 
resolve  itself  into  a  committee  of  the  whole,  as  does  the  House, 
but  the  practice  is  to  move  that  a  subject  be  considered  "  as  in  a 
committee  of  the  whole."  The  Senate  frequently  sits  in  Execu- 
tive Session,  that  is,  in  secret  session,  when  the  confirma- 
tion of  the  President's  nominations,  or  the  ratification  of  treaties 
is  discussed.  It  often  happens  that  full  reports  of  the  proceed- 
ings of  the  Senate  in  executive  session  are  published  in  the  news- 
papers. The  punishment  for  revealing  the  proceedings  is 
expulsion,  but  the  rule  is  practically  a  dead  letter.  It  is  commonly 
understood  that  the  newspaper  correspondents  receive  their  re- 
ports of  the  debates  from  those  members  of  the  Senate  who  are 
opposed  to  secret  sessions.  The  lower  house  of  Congress  is  the 
House  of  Representatives,  which  consists  of  Representatives 
or  Congressmen  from  all  the  States,  their  number  being  depen- 
dent upon  the  population.  The  Constitution  provides  that  the 
number  of  Congressmen  shall  not  exceed  one  to  each  thirty 
thousand  inhabitants,  but  that  each  State  shall  have  at  least  one 
Congressman.  In  the  Fifty-First  Congress,  an  act  was  passed  for 
the  re-apportionment  of  the  Congressional  districts,  by  which  the 
House  of  Representatives,  after  March  3,  1893,  will  consist  of 
three  hundred  and  fifty-six  members.  The  act  also  provided  for 
a  redistricting  of  the  States,  so  that  the  several  districts 
may  be  composed  of  contiguous  territory,  and  contain  as  nearly 
as  possible  an  equal  number  of  inhabitants.  Members  of  tb>e 
House  are  elected  for  two  years;  the  salary  is  $5,000  a  year, 
besides  mileage  at  the  rate  of  twenty  cents  a  mile,  and  $125  a 
year  for  stationery  and  newspapers.  A  member  must  be  at  least 
twenty-five  years  of  age,  and  seven  years  a  citizen ;  he  must, 
moreover,  at  the  time  of  his  election  be  an  inhabitant  of  the  State 
from  which  he  is  chosen.  The  House  of  Representatives  chooses 
its  Speaker  and  other  officers.  The  power  of  the  Speaker  is 
enormous.  He  appoints  all  committees,  and  the  method  of  the 
House  in  transacting  its  business  renders  it  more  or  less  sub- 
servient to  him.  In  the  Fifty-First  Congress,  the  Speaker, 
Thomas  B.  Reed,  of  Maine,  instituted  a  method  of  conducting  the 
business  which  was  beyond  all  precedent,  and  which  precipitated 

' 


FEDERAL    GOVERNMENT.  119 

a  bitter  strife  between  him  and  the  Democratic  minority. 
Previously  a  quorum  had  been  recognized  as  consisting  of  a 
majority  of  the  members.  Members  of  a  minority  faction  who 
desired  to  obstruct  legislation  witli  which  they  did  not  sympathize 
could  do  so  by  not  answering  to  their  names  when  the  vote  was 
taken.  The  Speaker,  professedly  in  order  to  facilitate  the  public 
business,  ruled  that  the  actual  presence  of  a  member  required 
that  he  should  vote,  and  he  ordered  the  votes  of  all  members  who 
were  present,  but  who  declined  to  vote,  to  be  counted  in  the 
affirmative.  The  ruling  was  pronounced  by  the  minority  to  be 
revolutionary,  and  Reed  was  called  a  "  usurper,"  a  "  Czar,"  etc.,x 
and  during  this  Congress  he  was  familiarly  spoken  of  as  "  Czar  " 
Reed. 

A  distinctive  Feature  of  the  House  is  that  all  bills  for  the 
raising  of  revenue  must  originate  with  it ;  but  the  Senate  may  pro- 
pose or  concur  with  amendments  as  on  other  bills.  The  Senate 
and  the  House  concurrently  have  power  to  lay  and  collect  taxes, 
duties,  imposts,  and  excises ;  to  pay  the  debts  and  provide  for  the 
common  defence  and  general  welfare  of  the  country ;  to  borrow 
money  on  the  nation's  credit;  to  regulate  commerce  among  the 
States  and  with  other  nations  ;  to  coin  money  and  fix  the  standard 
of  weights  and  measures ;  to  declare  war ;  to  provide  and  main- 
tain an  army  and  a  navy;  to  make  laws  affecting  naturalization 
and  bankruptcy ;  to  establish  post-offices ;  to  encourage  science 
and  the  arts  by  favorable  laws;  to  define  and  punish  piracies  and 
felonies  on  the  high  seas ;  to  constitute  tribunals  inferior  to  the  Su- 
preme Court,  and  to  provide  for  various  other  legislation.  Every 
public  bill  and  all  measures  relating  to  religion,  trade,  revenue,  ojc 
the  grant  of  public  money,  must  be  considered  in  Committee  of 
the  Whole  before  being  considered  by  the  House.  This  prac- 
tice is  resorted  to  in  order  to  insure  freedom  of  debate  in  im- 
portant measures. 

Judiciary,  The. — By  the  Constitution,  the  judicial  power  of 
the  United  States  shall  be  vested  in  one  Supreme  Court,  and  in 
such  inferior  courts  as  may  be  designated  by  Congress.  There  are 
now  eighteen  Circuit  Courts  and  seventy-five  District  Courts,  be- 
sides the  Court  of  Claims.  The  Supreme  Court  judges,  nine  in 
number,  are  appointed  for  life.  The  Judicial  Power  extends 
to  all  cases,  in  law  and  equity,  arising  under  the  Constitution,  the 
laws  of  the  United  States,  and  treaties  made,  or  which  shall  be 
made  under  their  authority ;  to  all  cases  affecting  ambassadors, 
other  public  ministers  and  consuls ;  to  all  cases  of  admiralty  and 
maritime  jurisdiction  ;  to  controversies  to  which  the  United  States 
shall  be  a  party ;  to  controversies  between  two  or  more  States ; 
between  a  State  and  citizens  of  another  State ;  between  citizens 


120  FEDERAL    GOVERNMENT. 

of  different  States ;  between  citizens  of  the  same  State  claiming 
lands  under  grants  of  different  States,  and  between  a  State,  or 
the  citizens  thereof,  and  foreign  states,  citizens,  or  subjects.  In 
all  cases  affecting  ambassadors,  other  public  ministers  and  consuls, 
and  those  in  which  a  State  is  a  party,  the  Supreme  Court  has 
original  jurisdiction.  In  all  the  other  cases  before  mentioned, 
the  Supreme  Court  has  appellate  jurisdiction,  both  as  to  law  and 
fact,  with  such  exceptions  and  under  such  regulations  as  Congress 
may  make.  The  Trial  of  All  Crimes,  except  in  cases  of  im- 
peachment, is  by  jury ;  and  such  trial  must  be  held  in  the  State 
where  the  said  crimes  have  been  committed  ;  but  when  not  com- 
mitted within  any  State,  the  trial  is  at  such  place  or  places  as 
the  Congress  may  by  law  have  directed. 

The  limits  of  the  jurisdictions  of  the  Circuit  and  District  Courts, 
and  the  appellate  jurisdiction  of  the  latter  over  the  former,  are 
provided  by  law.  The  Circuit  Court  has  jurisdiction  of  patent 
suits,  and  the  District  Court  of  admiralty  cases.  The  Court 
of  Claims  has  jurisdiction  of  claims  against  the  United  States. 
The  Justices  of  the  Supreme  Court,  besides  sitting  in  that  Court, 
are  each  assigned  to  one  of  the  circuits,  being  then  known  as 
Circuit  Justices.  There  is  also  a  separate  Circuit  Judge  for 
each  circuit,  and  a  District  Judge  for  each  district.  Circuit  Courts 
may  be  held  by  the  Circuit  Justice,  by  the  Circuit  Judge,  or  by 
the  District  Judge  sitting  alone,  or  by  any  two  of  these  sitting  to- 
gether. The  Supreme  Court  is  made  up  as  follows :  Chief  Jus- 
tice^ Melville  W.  Fuller,  Illinois,  appointed  in  1888;  Associate 
Justices :  Stephen  J.  Field,  California  (1863),  *  Joseph  P.  Bradley, 
New  Jersey  (1870) ;  John  M.  Harlan,  Kentucky  (1877) ;  Horace 
Gray,  Massachusetts  (1881) ;  Samuel  Blatchford,  New  York 
(1882);  Lucius  Q.  C.  Lamar,  Mississippi  (1888);  David  J. 
Brewer,  Kansas  (1889) ;  Henry  B.  Brown,  Michigan  (1891). 
-Retired  Justice,  William  Strong,  Pennsylvania,  $10,000  a  year. 
Salary  of  the  Chief- Justice,  $10,500  ;  of  each  Justice,  $10,000. 

The  Circuit  Judges  are  :  Le  Baron  B.  Colt,  Rhode  Island  ; 
William  J.  Wallace,  New  York ;  E.  Henry  Lacombe,  Ne"w  York  ; 
Marcus  W.  Acheson,  Pennsylvania ;  Hugh  L.  Bond,  Maryland ; 
Don  A.  Pardee,  Louisiana ;  Howell  E.  Jackson,  Tennessee  ; 
Walter  Q.  Gresham,  Indiana ;  Henry  C.  Caldwell,  Arkansas. 
Salary,  $6,000.  What  is  known  as  the  Supreme  Court  Relief 
Bill  (which  see),  provided  for  the  appointment  by  the  President 
in  each  circuit  of  one  new  judge,  each  one  of  whom,  with  the 
present  judge  of  the  circuit  to  which  the  new  judge  is  ap- 
pointed and  a  justice  of  the  Supreme  Court,  will  constitute 
a  Circuit  Court  of  Appeals  for  certain  cases.  The  ap- 

*  Died  Jan.  22, 1892. 


FINANCES   OF    THE   GOVKRNMENT.  121 

pointments  were  :  First  Circuit,  William  L.  Putnam,  Maine ; 
Second,  Nathaniel  Shipman,  Connecticut ;  Third,  George  M. 
Dallas,  Pennsylvania  ;  Fourth,  Nathan  Goff,  Jr.,  West  Virginia  ; 
Sixth,  William  H.  Taft,  Ohio;  Seventh,  William  A.  Woods, 
Indiana.  The  salaries  are  $6,000  each. 

The    United   States   Court  of  Claims  consists  of    Chief 
Justice,    William    A.     Richardson,    Massachusetts ;     Associate 
Judges,  Chas.  C.  Nott,  New   York;  Lawrence  Weldon,  Illinois; 
John  Davis,  District  of  Columbia.     Salary  $4,500. 
Federal  Party.      (See  Political  Parties.) 
Fiat  Money.      (See  Coinage,  Free  Coinage,  etc.) 
Fifty-Four-Forty-or-Figllt. —  The  campaign    cry   in    1844, 
when  the  location  of  the  Northwestern  boundary  was  in  dispute. 
By  a  treaty  with    Russia,   the   boundary,  it  was  claimed,  should 
extend  to  54°  40';  but  a  compromise  resulted  in  the  extension  of 
the  boundary  on  the  49th  parallel  to  Puget  Sound.     The  phrase 
was  sometimes  written  Phiphty-phour-phorty-or-phight. 
Fighting  Joe.     (See  Nicknames  of  Famous  Americans.) 
Filibusters. —  The  word  is  of  Spanish    origin,    and  in  that 
language      meant     "  pirates. "     Popularly,   filibustering    is    the 
obstruction  of  legislative  action  by  the  minority.     Originally  the 
filibusters  were  adventui-ous  spirits  who  organized  expeditions  in 
this  country  for  conquest  of  West  Indian   and   Central  American 
peoples.     Several   of   these    expeditions    were    started    but  none 
accomplished  anything. 

Finances,  Government. 

National  Debt.  Surplus. 

Government  Bonds.          Money  in  Circulation. 
Receipts  and  Expenses. 

The  financier  of  the  United  States  Government  is  the 
Secretary  of  the  Treasury.  (See  Federal  Government.)  This 
official  is  chosen  from  among  the  most  expert  financiers  in  the 
country,  and  it  is  a  tribute  to  the  public  honor  that  although  the 
Treasury  Department  since  its  establishment  has  disbursed  over 
£7,000,000,000,  there  has  been  no  defalcation  of  any  consequence. 
The  finances  of  the  Treasury  have  to  do  with  the  manipulation  of 
the  national  debt,  the  care  of  the  surplus,  and  of  the  receipts  and 
expenditures,  besides  the  coinage  of  moneys.  The  national  debt 
derived  its  existence  from  the  War  of  the  Revolution,  at  the  end 
of  which  the  debt  was  $75,463,470.52.  Alexander  Hamilton 
then  made  his  famous  report  on  the  payment  .of  the  national  debt, 
recommending,  first,  that  the  foreign  debt  should  be  paid  in  full ; 
second,  that  the  domestic  debt  should  be  paid  at  par  ;  third,  that 


122 


FINANCES    Off    THE    GOVERNMENT. 


the  State  debts  acquired  by  reason  of  the  war  should  be  paid  by 
the  Federal  government.  This  report  precipitated  a  bitter 
contest  between  the  Federals  and  the  Anti-Federals,  but  by  supe- 
rior political  management,  Hamilton  secured  the  adoption 
by  Congress  of  his  report.  The  Debt  of  the  Government 
from  time  to  time  consists  chiefly  of  bonds  and  gold  or  silver  cer- 
tificates redeemable  in  coin.  The  bonded' debt  has  paid  interest 
varying  from  eight  per  cent,  in  1799  to  1811,  six  per  cent,  in  1811 
to  1823,  five  per  cent,  in  1823  to  1835,  six  per  cent,  in  1835  to 
1855,  five  per  cent,  in  1855  to  1876,  four  per  cent,  in  1876  to 
1888  and  since  then  it  has  been  as  low  as  three  and  one  half, 
three,  and  two  and  one  half  per  cent.  Whenever  the  Surplus  is 
large  enough  to  warrant  the  Secretary  of  the  Treasury  in  pur- 
chasing bonds,  thereby  to  reduce  the  debt,  he  is  empowered 
to  do  so.  Between  1852  and  1857,  over  $50,000,000  of  the  debt 
was  purchased  in  this  way  in  the  open  market,  the  bonds  bein<.-; 
worth  at  the  time  about  $125,  so  that  a  premium  aggregating 
upwards  of  $8,000,000  was  paid.  Owing  to  the  enormous 
expenses  of  the  government  in  the  War  of  the  Rebellion,  the 
national  debt  in  1866  ran  up  to  $2,773,236,173,  the  highest  point 
in  its  history.  However,  the  immense  internal  revenue  of  the 
government  at  that  time,  amounting  in  1866  to  $309,226,813.42 
(more  than  twice  as  large  as  that  in  1891),  aided  in  paying  off  the 
debt ;  a  large  amount  of  bonds,  at  six  per  cent.,  maturing  in  fifteen 
years,  were  also  issued.  Since  then,  the  surplus  has  been  large 
enough  to  permit  of  a  gradual  reduction  year  by  year  of  the  war 
debt,  so  that  it  was  wiped  out  long  ago. 

The  following  table  shows  the  amount  of  the  National  Debt 
in  each  year  since  1865. 


18C5 $2,680,647,869.74 

1866 2,773,236,173.69 

1867 2,678,126,103.87 

1868 2,611,687,851.19 

1869 2,588,452,213.94 

1870 2,480,672,427.81 

1871 2,353,211,332.32 

1872 2,253,251,328.78 

1873 2,234,482,993.20 


1874 $2,251,690,408.43 

1875 2,232,284,531.95 

1876 2,180,395,067.15 

1877 2,205,301,392.10 

1878 2,256,205,892.C3 

1879 2,349,567,232  04 

1880 2,128,791,054.03 

1881 2,077,389,253.58 

1882 1,920,088,678.03 


18R3 §1,892,547,412.07 

1884 1,838,904,607.57 

1885 1,872,340,557.14 

iSSti 1,783,438,697.78 

18S7 1,004,401,536.38 

1888 1,080,917,700.23 

1SS9 1,617,372,419.53 

1890 1,549,2!)0,12C.48 

1891 1,540,961,095.01 


Government  Bonds  sometimes  are  issued  subject  to  the 
redemption  by  the  government  at  its  pleasure.  But  generally 
bonds  are  not  redeemable  until  a  certain  time  fixed  for  their 
maturity.  They  arc  sold  in  large  amount  to  banking  institutions, 
while  thousands  of  private  individuals  are  more  content  in  hold- 
ing government  securities  than  any  others.  It  sometimes  happens 
that  the  government  does  not  find  itself  able  to  redeem  bonds  at 
their  maturity.  In  case  Congress  fails  to  provide  for  this  emer- 
gency, the  Secretary  is  forced  to  make  the  best  possible  terms 


FINANCES    OF    THE    GOVERNMENT. 


123 


WASHINGTON     SCENES     IN     1861. 

1.    Pennsylvania  Avenue,  looking  toward  the  Capitol.  2.     War  Department. 

3.    Navy  Department. 


124  FINANCES    OF    THE    GOVKR.VttEXT. 

with  the  bondholders.  This  Secretary  Windom  had  to  do  in 
1881,  when  over  $650,000,000  in  five  and  six  per  cents  matured. 
There  not  being  money  enough  at  his  command  to  meet  this 
enormous  obligation,  the  Secretary  offered  to  extend  the  bonds  of 
such  as  might  desire  it,  at  three  and  one  half  per  cent.,  redeem- 
able at  the  pleasure  of  the  government.  This  he  did  in  a  general 
circular  to  the  bondholders.  Over  $460,000,000  of  these  bonds  w  fix- 
thus  redeemed.  In  1891,  Secretary  Foster  was  forced  to  make  ,1 
somewhat  similar  offer  to  holders  of  government  bonds,  which 
was  accepted.  The  outstanding  Interest  Bearing  Debt  on 
Dec.  1,  1891,  was  as  follows :  Funded  loan  of  1891,  $25,364,500  ; 
funded  loan  of  1907,  $559,573,650  ;  refunding  certificates,  $88,- 
720 ;  total,  $585,026,870.  These,  together  with  a  non-interest 
bearing  debt  of  $387,433,346.35,  the  debt  on  which  interest  has 
ceased  since  maturity,  $5,279,770.26,  and  the  outstanding  Treasury 
notes  secured  by  cash  in  the  Treasury,  $569,221,709,  made  an 
aggregate  debt  of  $1,546,961,695.61.  The  cash  was  $139,126,- 
917.96.  The  debt  per  capita  of  population  in  1867  was  $69.26; 
in  1880,  it  was  $38.27  ;  in  1891,  it  was  $12.30. 

The  Surplus  nowadays  averages  over  $125,000,000.  In 
Cleveland's  administration,  an  Act  of  Congress  was  passed  giving 
the  Secretary  of  the  Treasury  permanent  authority  to  purchase 
bonds  whenever  the  surplus  is  large  enough  to  warrant  it.  The 
withdrawal  of  so  considerable  an  amount  of  money  from  the 
channels  of  business  would  be  a  severe  hardship  were  it  not  that 
under  the  national  banking  laws  government  funds  may  be  depos- 
ited in  national  banks,  and  thus  be  utilized  in  trade,  if  secured  by 
deposits  in  the  United  States  Treasury  of  government  bonds. 
The  amount  of  such  government  moneys  in  national  banks  was 
in  September,  1886,  $52,199,000;  in  July,  1891,  it  \vas  $107,- 
056,532. 

Money  in  Circulation. —  The  money  of  the  United  States, 
in  the  Treasmy,  and  in  circulation,  was,  on  July  1,  1860,  $435,407- 
252,  circulation  per  capita  (31,443,321  population)  $13.85.  In 
1870,  the  amount  in  circulation  was  $675,212,794,  circulation  per 
capita  (population  39,555,000),  $18.10  ;  in  1891,  the  amount  in 
circulation  was  $1,500,067,555,  circulation  per  capita  (population 
63,975,000),  $23.45.  The  interest  per  capita  on  the  interest- 
bearing  debt  was  forty-four  cents. 

The  Receipts  of  the  United  States  Government  in 
the  fiscal  year  1891  were  $392,612,447,  of  which  $219,522,205 
was  from  customs  ;  $145,686,249  from  internal  revenue  ;  $4,029- 
535  from  sales  of  public  lands,  and  $23,374,457  from  other 
sources. 

The  Expenses  of  the  United  States  Government  for 


FIRST    THINGS.  125 

the  fiscal  year  1891,  were  1365,733,905,  of  which  $10,401,221 
was  for  premiums  on  loans  and  purchases  of  bonds  ;  $48,720,065 
for  the  War  Department ;  $26,113,896  for  the  Navy  Department; 
$8,527,469  for  Indians'  maintenance  ;  $124,415,951  for  pensions; 
for  interest  on  public  debt,  $37,547,135.  Excess  of  receipts  over 
expenditures,  $26,638,542. 

Fire  Alarm  Foraker.  (See  Nicknames  of  Famous  Ameri- 
cans.) 

Fire  Eater.     (See  Slang  of  Politics.) 
Fire  Losses,  Causes  of  Fires,  etc.     (See  Great  Fires.) 
Fires,  Forest.      (See  Forestry.) 
Fires,  Great.     (See  Great  Fires.) 

First  Gentleman  of  the  Land.  (See  Presidents  of  the 
United  States.) 

First  in  War,  First  in  Peace,  First  in  the  Hearts  of  His 
Countrymen.  (See  Sayings  of  Famous  Americans.) 

First  Things  in  America.  —  The  following  is  a  catalogue 
of  the  first  use,  make,  existence,  etc.,  of  various  articles,  or  insti- 
tutions, or  products,  etc.,  in  the  United  States :  — 

Sleeping-car  used  upon  the  Cumberland  Valley  Railroad  of 
Pennsylvania  from  1836  to  1848 ;  Benjamin  Franklin  used  lightning 
rods,  1752  ;  insurance  office  in  Boston,  1724  ;  American  library, 
founded  at  Harvard  College,  Cambridge,  1638  ;  cotton  raised  in 
Virginia,  in  1621 ;  Atlantic  cable  operated,  1858 ;  steamer  crossed 
the  Atlantic,  1819 ;  sugai'-cane  cultivated  near  New  Orleans, 
1751;  sugar-mill,  1758;  telegraph  in  operation  between  Wash- 
ington and  Baltimore,  May  27,  1844  ;  college  [Harvard]  estab- 
lished in  1638 ;  introduction  of  homoeopathy,  1825  ;  permanent 
English  settlement,  at  Jamestown,  Va.,  1607  ;  newspaper  at  Boston, 
1690  ;  National  bank  established  in  1816 ;  Pennsylvania  estab- 
lished a  hospital  in  1751 ;  discovery  of  gold  in  California 
in  1848;  illumination  with  gas  at  Boston,  1822;  theatre 
at  Williamsburg,  Va.,  1752 ;  theological  seminary  established 
at  Greenville,  Pa.,  Nov.  1,  1805;  public  schools  established 
in  the  New  England  States  about  1642;  slavery  at  Jamestown, 
Va.,  in  1620 ;  postage  stamps  in  the  United  States  in  1847  ;  sub- 
scription library  at  Philadelphia,  1731 ;  life  insurance  at  Phila- 
delphia, 1812  ;  discovery  of  United  States  land,  April  2,  1512,  by 
De  Leon,  who  discovered  Florida ;  agricultural  exhibition  in  1810, 
at  Georgetown,  D.  C. ;  axes  and  edged  tools  in  1826,  first  manu- 
factured at  Hartford,  Conn. ;  bank  established  at  Philadelphia, 
Dec.  31,  1781,  incorporated  by  Congress  as  "the  President, 
Directors,  and  Company  of  the  Bank  of  North  America  "  ;  savings 


126  FLAGS    OF    THE    UNITED    STATES. 

bank,  "  the  Savings  Fund  Society  of  Philadelphia,"  opened 
Dec.  2,  1816;  ["the  Bank  for  Savings"  in  New  York  was 
founded  Nov.  25,  1816,  but  did  not  go  into  business  until  July  3, 
1819  ;]  book  printed  in  1640,  the  Bay  Psalms  Book  at  Cambridge, 
Mass.;  spelling  book  in  1783,  the  American  Spelling  Book,  by 
Noah  Webster ;  geography  in  1789,  published  by  Jedediah 
Morse;  book  written  in  America  in  1607,  "Relation  of  such 
occurrences  as  might  have  happened  in  Virginia,"  etc.,  composed 
in  1607,  by  Capt.  John  I.  True,  published  in  London,  1608  ; 
child  born  Aug.  18,  1587,  at  Roanoke  Island,  the  granddaughter 
of  White,  the  governor,  and  baptized  on  the  following  Sabbath 
by  the  name  of  Virginia  (Dare);  first  church,  erected  in  1632,  in 
Boston,  Mass.;  steamboat  on  the  Hudson  in  1807;  sawmakers' 
anvil  in  America,  1819;  percussion  arms  used  in  the  United 
States  Army  in  1830  ;  glass  factory  in  the  United  States  in  1780  ; 
complete  sewing-machine  patented  by  Elias  Howe,  Jr.,  in  1846; 
temperance  society  organized  in  Saratoga  County,  N.  Y.,  in 
March,  1808. 

For  the  first  manufacture  in  America  of  vessels,  bricks,  saw- 
mills, glass,  tinware,  cotton-mill,  carding  machine,  cotton  yarn,  sew- 
ing thread,  finished  cloth,  nails,  tacks,  hats,  boots,  and  shoes,  combs, 
iron  works,  cannon  balls,  cordage,  wall-paper,  ploughs,  beer,  wine, 
brandy,  linen  cloth,  woollen  cloth,  paper,  salt,  see  Manufactures. 

Flags  of  the-  United  States. 

Stars  on  the  Flag,  Presidential  Flag, 

Garrison  Flag,  Revenue  Flag, 

Union  Jack,  First  American  Flag. 

The  star-spangled  banner  dates  from  June  14,  1775,  when  by 
resolution   of  Congress  the  flag  of  the   United  States  was  offi- 
cially described  as  containing    "thirteen 

********      ,.  -        ,  j       ,      ,P      ,1    ,,    i 

*******         stripes,  alternate  red  and  white  ;  that  the 

*******         Union   be  thirteen  stars,  white,  in  a  blue 

*******         field,  representing  a   new  constellation." 

Two  more  stripes   were  added,  one  each 

for  Vermont  and  Kentucky,  but  on  April 

4,  1818,  the  number  of  stripes  was  fixed  at  thirteen.  It  was  en- 
acted that  one  star  should  be  added  for  each  new  State  admitted. 
From  1876,  when  Colorado  was  admitted,  to  1889,  when  the  new 
Northwestern  States  were  admitted  to  the  Union,  the  flag  had 
thirty-eight  stars.  The  admission  of  these  States  added  four  more 
stars,  making  forty-two  in  all.  Idaho  and  Wyoming  have  since 
been  admitted,  making  forty-four  States,  and  requiring  forty-four 
stars  in  the  flag.  This  number  has  been  in  the  flag  since  July  4, 
1891.  The  Revised.  Statutes  provide  the  addition  of  a  star  to 


FLORIDA.  127 

the  flag  shall  take  effect  on  the  fourth  day  of  July  succeeding  the 
admission  of  a  State. 

The  Garrison  Flag  of  the  army  is  thirty-six  by  twenty  feet, 
having  thirteen  red  and  white  stripes  equal  in  breadth.  The 
Union  is  one  third  the  length  of  the  flag,  and  extends  to  the 
lower  edge  of  the  fourth  red  stripe  counting  from  the  top.  There 
are  also  a  storm  flag,  twenty  by  ten,  and  a  recruiting  flag,  nine 
feet  nine  inches  by  four  feet  four  inches.  The  Revenue  Flag 
originally  consisted  of  sixteen  perpendicular  stripes,  red  and 
white,  the  Union  of  the  ensign  bearing  the  arms  of  the  United 
States  in  dark  blue  on  a  white  field.  The  sixteen  stripes  repre- 
sented the  number  of  States  in  the  Union  at  the  time,  and  no 
change  has  since  been  made.  In  1871,  thirteen  blue  stars  in  a 
white  field  were  substituted  for  the  eagle  in  the  Union  of  the 
pennant.  The  pennant  has  a  Union  containing  thirteen  white 
stars,  on  a  blue  field,  one  quarter  the  length,  the  remaining  three 
fourths  having  a  red  and  white  stripe.  By  tha  "  Union  Jack  " 
is  meant  the  Union  of  the  American  flag. 

The  Presidential  Flag,  the  idea  of  which  originated  with 
President  Arthur,  consists  of  a  blue  ground  with  the  arms  of  the 
United  States  in  the  centre.  It  was  used  for  the  first  time  in 
1883  by  President  Arthur.  The  first  strictly  American  flag  was 
hoisted  over  the  Capitol  at  Washington,  February '24,  1866,  all 
flags  previously  having  been  manufactured  from  English  bunting. 
The  flag  was  twenty-one  feet  by  twelve  feet,  and  was  the  gift  of 
Gen.  Benj.  F.  Butler. 

Florida. —  Florida    was   the   first   region  in  North   America 

colonized  by  Europeans.  It  was  dis- 
covered and  explored  in  1513  by 
Ponce  de  Leon,  who  made  a  settle- 
ment at  St.  Augustine  in  1565.  In 
1861,  Florida  promptly  joined  the 
Secession  States  and  seized  such 
national  property  as  was  unprotected. 
The  coast  of  Florida  has  hundreds  of 
islands,  among  them  the  famous 
Florida  Keys,  where  grow  mangrove, 
palmetto,  pine,  sweet-bay,  and  other 
trees,  and  where  cocoanuts,  hemp, 

OKEAT  SEAL  OF  FLORIDA.        and   Dapples   are    raised   in    large 
quantities,  with  but  little  cultivation. 

There  have  been  planted  on  or  near  the  Keys  since  1880,  600,- 
000  cocoanut  trees,  the  culture  of  cocoanuts  and  pineapples,  dates, 
lemons,  etc.,  here  and  at  other  points  on  the  coast  being  a  profit- 


128  FLORIDA. 

able  industry.  The  sponge  fishery  of  Florida  employs  four  hun- 
dred vessels  and  sailboats,  one  thousand  fishermen,  and  yields 
$1,000,000  worth  of  sponges  every  year.  Mullet,  redsnapper, 
pompano,  kingfish,  sheephead,  green  turtles,  Spanish  mackerel, 
and  many  other  kinds  of  fish  are  caught  in  large  quantities,  and 
shipped  to  the  North.  At  Key  West  are  upwards  of  one  hun- 
dred and  twenty-five  factories,  which  make  over  125,000,000 
cigars  yearly. 

Florida  is  noted  for  its  Rivers  and  Lakes.  The  St.  John's 
River  is  nearly  four  hundred  miles  long ;  the  Indian  River  is  a 
salt  water  lagoon  165  miles  long  and  from  one  to  six  miles  wide, 
and  is  famous  for  its  oranges  and  pineapples.  Other  rivers  are 
the  St.  Mark's,  the  Apalachicola,  the  Suwanee,  and  the  Withla- 
coochee. 

The  Everglades,  which  is  a  vast,  luxuriant  swamp  covering 
7,500  square  miles,  abounds  in  fish,  and  has  many  islands  with 
hundreds  of  acres  of  cypresses  and  pines,  palmettoes  and  magno- 
lias. The  lakes  of  Florida,  of  which  there  are  twelve  hundred,  are 
remarkable  for  the  clearness  of  their  water.  The  Lumber  In- 
dustry is  a  most  important  one,  the  woods  produced  in  the  State 
finding  a  ready  market.  There  are  over  20,000,000  acres  covered 
with  Avoods,  among  which  are  pitch-pine  in  great  abundance, 
pine,  oak,  sweet-gum,  royal  palm,  bay-laurel,  magnolia,  cedar, 
beech,  mahogany,  satin-wood,  iignum-vitse,  green  ebony,  man- 
grove, cork-tree,  and  olive  —  in  all  two  hundred  species  of  trees. 
Live-oak,  for  shipbuilding,  is  a  large  product  of  the  northeast ;  and 
western  Florida  finds  profit  in  tar,  resin,  and  pitch,  and  distilling 
turpentine.  Lumbering  yields  $20,000,000  a  year.  The  Cotton 
crop  is  valued  at  $4,000,000;  that  of  tobacco  at  nearly  $700,000  ; 
that  of  oranges  at  $2,000,000  (2,250,000  boxes).  On  account  of 
its  equable  climate  Florida  has  long  been  a  •  favorite  resort  for 
invalids,  especially  for  those  suffering  from  lung  and  throat 
troubles,  overwork,  nervous  prostration,  and  dyspepsia.  The 
population  in  1880  was  269,493  ;  in  1890,  390,435.  The  value  of 
assessed  property  was  $77,000,000.  There  were  3,300,000  acres 
of  farm  lands,  valued  at  $20,000,000.  In  1890  there  were  2,470 
miles  of  railroad,  and  122  newspapers. 

Jacksonville  is  noted  as  a  winter  resort  and  as  a  centre  of  a 
large  fruit-packing  business,  and  some  manufacturing.  It  is 
situated  fifteen  miles  from  the  ocean  on  the  St.  John's  River. 
The  population  in  1890  was  17,160.  It  has  an  extensive  ship- 
ping trade.i  Key  West  is  sixty  miles  from  the  mainland.  It  was 
settled  in  1818  by  Connecticut  fishermen.  It  has  a  fine  harbor, 
well  fortified,  a  naval  station,  and  steamship  lines  to  New  York, 
Galveston,  New  Orleans,  and  Havana.  It  is  the  ninth  port  of 


FORESTKY.  129 

entry  in  the  United  States.  Many  of  its  inhabitants  are  Spaniards 
and  the  buildings  have  a  foreign  look. 

Fensacola  is  an  old  Spanish  colony,  with  a  population  of  11,- 
751.  It  has  a  large  export  trade  in  lumber  and  fish,  and  has  a 
harbor  of  two  hundred  square  miles.  The  capital  is  Tallahassee, 
which  is  an  old-fashioned  city,  famous  for  its  flowers.  Fernan- 
dina,  a  seaport,  and  an  exporting  centre,  and  Palatka,  ninety-six 
miles  up  the  St.  John's  River,  are  other  of  the  more  populous 
cities.  Frank  P.  Fleming  (Democrat)  is  Governor  of  Florida. 
His  term  expires  Jan.  3,  1893.  The  State  is  Democratic. 

Force  Bill. —  The  term  Democrats  in  the  Fifty- First  Congress 
used  with  reference  to  the  Elections  Bill,  which  proposed  to  give 
the  United  States  Government  control  over  the  national  elections. 
The  suggestion  of  "  force  "  arose  from  the  probability  that  armed 
government  soldiers  would  be  present  at  the  polls  in  Southern 
States,  to  guarantee  to  the  negroes  their  right  to  vote.  The 
name  "  Force  Bill  "  was  first  applied  to  a  bill  passed  by  Congress 
to  compel  South  Carolina  to  yield  to  the  collection  of  the  duties, 
under  the  Tariff  Acts  of  1828  and  1832,  which  the  Calhoun 
Nullifiers  had  pronounced  null  and  void.  (See  Tariffs  of  the 
United  States.) 

Foreign  Mail  Service.     (See  Post-Office  System.) 

Foresters,  Ancient  Order  of.     (See  Secret  Societies.) 

Forestry. 

Forest  Area.  Lumber  Industry. 

Forest  Fires.  Forestry  Commissions. 

Tree  Planting.  Arbor  Day. 

The  forest  area  of  the  United  States,  now  estimated  at 
480,000,000  acres,  was  originally  evenly  distributed  through- 
out the  country.  The  forest  area  included  in  farms  is  about 
185,000,000  acres.  The  northern  part  of  the  country,  years 
ago,  was  well  wooded,  the  most  valuable  lumber  tree,  the  white 
pine,  being  especially  luxuriant.  The  process  of  destruction 
however,  which  has  for  many  years  been  carried  on,  has  practi- 
cally stripped  this  section  of  its  valuable  forest  growths.  Lunx 
bering  is  still  carried  on,  but  the  yield  is  not  nearly  as  large. 
Large  sections  of  the  South  are  still  heavily  timbered,  but  it  is 
only  a  question  of  time  before  it,  too,  will  be  denuded,  so  fast 
has  the  cutting  been  done.  The  West  is  remarkable  for  a  scarcity 
of  forests,  although  there  has  been  extensive  Planting  of 
Trees  in  late  years  in  many  of  the  States  this  side  of  the  Rock- 
ies. In  the  Pacific  coast  division,  the  mountains  are  covered  with 
rich  growths  of  fine  trees,  but  here,  too,  the  woodman's  axe  has 
been  diligently  at  work,  until  even  in  this  primeval  region,  the 


130  FORESTRY. 

trees  will  soon  be  gone.  The  Puget  Sound  region  is  now  the 
centre  of  a  vast  lumbering  interest.  In  California,  the  pine  and 
red-wood  are  in  great  demand  for  export.  Parts  of  Arizona  and 
New  Mexico  have  virgin  growths  of  line  trees  which  have  not  yet 
been  attacked,  chiefly  because  of  their  inaccessibility.  Generally 
speaking,  the  forests  of  New  England,  New  York,  Pennsylvania, 
Michigan,  Minnesota,  and  Wisconsin  are  practically  destroyed, 
those  of  the  Northwest  will  be  gone  ere  long,  so  that  the  South- 
ern States  in  the  next  twenty  years  will  be  called  upon  to  supply 
the  larger  part  of  the  lumber  used  in  manufacturing,  domestic 
life,  and  railroading. 

The  present  annual  Consumption  of  Lumber  is  approxi- 
mately 20,000,000,000  cubic  feet,  over  2,500,000,000  cubic  feet  of 
which  is  required  in  manufacturing.  A  very  large  part  is  used 
for  fuel  and  other  domestic  purposes.  Railroads  use  over  $10,- 
000,000  worth  of  lumber  for  railroad  ties,  and  over  $5,000,000 
worth  for  fuel.  For  fuel  purposes  the  steamboats  of  the  country 
use  about  12,000,000  worth.  Baskets,  wood-pulp,  handles,  fence- 
posts,  etc.,  are  some  of  the  minor  forms  in  which  lumber  is  used 
in  large  amount.  The  total  value  of  the  forest  crop  of  the  coun- 
try is  something  over  $600,000,000,  of  which  $49,181,233  were 
exported  in  1890,  chiefly  unmanufactured. 

A  serious  cause  of  the  destruction  of  forests  is  Forest  Fires, 
which,  by  the  census  of  1880,  destroyed  $25,462,250  of  forest 
lands,  burning  10,274,089  acres.  In  Pennsylvania,  Tennessee, 
and  Wyoming  alone,  $12,000,000  of  forest  lands  were  destroyed. 
Another  cause  of  loss  is  the  habit  many  farmers  have  of  turning 
cattle,  sheep,  and  horses  into  the  woods.  They  devour  seedling 
trees,  bai'k  their  trunks,  and  otherwise  destroy  their  vigor. 

The  lumber  interests  are  centred  in  Maine,  northern  New  York, 
Michigan,  Illinois,  Minnesota,  Wisconsin,  Indiana,  Pennsylvania, 
North  Carolina,  South  Carolina,  Georgia,  Florida,  Washington, 
southern  Alabama,  southern  Mississippi,  southeastern  Texas, 
northern  California,  western  Oregon,  and  the  prolific  Puget  Sound 
region.  Michigan  is  the  first  State  in  production,  the  Puget 
Sound  region  being  second.  Over  $250,000,000  capital  is  invested 
in  lumbering,  employing  200,000  hamb.  The  number  of  lumber- 
ing establishments  is  over  30,000. 

The  attention  of  the  government  was  several  years  ago  called 
to  the  Denudation  of  the  Forests.  Congress  made  an  inves- 
tigation, forestry  associations  sprang  into  existence,  and  a  concerted 
attempt  was  made  to  save  some  of  the  forest  lands.  Yellowstone 
Park  was  set  aside  as  a  National  Park,  arid  in  New  York  the 
Adirondack  Park  Association  strives  to  secure  for  the  State  of 
New  York  a  compact  State  Park  in  the  Adirondacks. 


FORESTRY. 


131 


For  the  preservation  of  the  forests,  the  State  of  New  York 
instituted  a  Forest  Commission,  in  1885,  with  extensive  powers. 
The  State  of  California  has  also  created  a  Forest  Commission, 


COURT    HOUSE     AT     ATLANTA,  GA. 

and  Colorado,  North    Dakota,  and  New  Hampshire  have  Forest 
Commissions.     Ohio  has  a  Forestry  Bureau. 

A  national  organization  known  as  the  American  Forestry 
Association,  composed  of  delegates  from  all  the  States,  meets 
annually.  To  encourage  forest-planting  on  the  prairies,  the 
United  States  Government  has  made  tree-planting,  under  certain 


132  FUGITIVE    SLATE    LAW. 

regulations,  the  consideration  for  the  acquisition  of   public  lands. 
(See  Public  Lands.) 

The  individual  States  have  striven  to  encourage  tree-planting 
by  appointing  a  certain  day  in  the  j^ear,  to  be  known  as  Arbor 
Day,  for  the  voluntary  planting  of  trees  by  the  people, 
and  latterly  the  interest  has  been  widened  by  inducing  the 
pupils  of  the  public  schools  to  take  part  in  the  observance. 
The  following  States  and  Territories  have  since  then,  by  legis- 
lative enactment  or  otherwise,  established  an  annual  Arbor  Day: 
Alabama,  California,  Colorado,  Connecticut,  Florida,  Georgia, 
Idaho,  Illinois,  Indiana,  Iowa,  Kansas,  Kentucky,  Maine,  Mary- 
land, Massachusetts,  Michigan,  Minnesota,  Montana,  Missouri, 
Nebraska,  Nevada,  New  Hampshirej  New  Jersey,  New  Mexico, 
New  York,  North  Dakota,  Ohio,  Oregon,  Pennsylvania,  Rhode 
Island,  South  Dakota,  Tennessee,  Texas,  Vermont,  West 
Virginia,  Wisconsin,  Wyoming  —  37  in  all.  (See  Legal  Holi- 
days.) 

Free  Coinage.       (See  Coinage,  Free  Coinage.) 
Free  Masonry.      (See  Secret  Societies.) 

Free  Soil*  Free  Speech,  Free  Men,  and  Fremont. —  A 

campaign  cry  of  the  Fremont  Republicans  in  1856.     (See  Cam- 
paign Songs.) 

Free  Soilers.      (See  Political  Parties.) 

French  Spoliation  Claims.  —  During  the  war  between 
France  and  England  in  1794,  the  French  seized  many  cargoes  of 
American  vessels  trading  with  England.  The  owners  of  the 
property  seized  demanded  damages.  This  government  asked 
France  to  pay,  but  she  replied  that  our  treaty  of  1778  with  her 
had  been  broken  by  us,  maintaining  that  the  United  States  should 
have  assisted  her  in  her  war  against  England  instead  of  remaining 
neutral.  For  this  reason  she  refused  to  pay  the  damages  asked, 
unless  this  government  should  compensate  her  for  loss  occasioned 
by  our  alleged  violation  of  the  treaty  of  1778.  The  property 
owners  now  turned  to  the  United  States  Government,  and  de- 
manded the  damages  from  it,  taking  the  ground  that  the  govern- 
ment could  not  cancel  a  public  debt  at  the  expense  of  a  number 
of  private  citizens.  Since  1800,  one  bill  after  another,  providing 
for  the  payment  of  these  claims,  amounting  with  interest  to 
$1,304,095.37  has  been  introduced  in  Congress.  Twice  an  ap- 
propriation passed,  but  in  each  case  the  bill  was  vetoed.  The 
Fifty-First  Congress  passed  the  bill,  and  President  Harrison 
signed  it. 

Fugitive  Slave  Law,  The.  —  This  was  part  of  Henry  Clay's 


GEORGIA.  133 

Omnibus  Bill  (which  see),  in  which  it  was  inserted  as  a  means  of 
placating  the  Southerners  in  the  matter  of  the  admission  of  Cali- 
fornia as  a  free  State  in  1850.  The  law  encouraged  the  surrender 
of  fugitive  slaves,  and  commanded  the  people  to  aid  in  their 
arrest.  Those  who  obstructed  an  arrest,  or  who  aided  slaves  to 
escape  from  custody,  were  liable  to  fine  and  imprisonment. 
United  States  marshals  refusing  to  execute  writs  were  punishable 
by  a  fine,  and  the  fee  of  a  commissioner  capturing  a  slave  was 
ten  dollars  if  the  prisoner  was  shown  to  be  a  slave,  but  only  five 
dollars  if  he  was  shown  to  be  free.  Inhumanities  were  practised 
upon  the  blacks,  and  there  were  regularly  organized  parties  of 
whites  engaged  in  kidnapping  them.  The  public  indignation 
became  so  strong  that  some  of  the  Northern  legislatures  passed 
Personal  Liberty  laws,  for  the  protection  of  free  negroes. 
Both  Democratic  and  Whig  platforms  of  1852  endorsed  the  law, 
but  it  remained  in  effect,  with  its  undiminished  cruelties,  until 
repealed  by  the  Republican  Congress  in  1863. 

Fuss  and  Feathers.     (See  Nicknames  of  Famous  Americans.) 
G.  0.  P.     (See  Slang  of  Politics.) 
Garrisonians.     (See  Political  Pai-ties.) 

Geneva  Award. —  Five  arbitrators,  Charles  Francis  Adams, 
representing  the  United  States,  Lord  Chief-Justice  Cockburn, 
representing  Great  Britain  ;  Count  Sclopis,  representing  Italy ; 
Jacques  Staempfli,  representing  the  Swiss  Confederation ;  and 
Baron  Itajuba,  representing  Brazil,  met  at  Geneva,  Switzerland, 
on  December  15,  1871,  as  a  tribunal  to  settle  by  arbitration  the 
dispute  between  this  government  and  Great  Britain,  growing  out  of 
the  Alabama  claims.  J.  C.  Bancroft  Davis  and  Lord  Tenterden 
were  agents  for  the  United  States  and  Great  Britain,  respectively. 
William  M.  Evarts  and  Caleb  Gushing  were  present  to  deliver 
the  arguments  in  behalf  of  this  government.  The  tribunal 
awarded  $15,500,000  in  gold  as  indemnity  to  the  United 
States,  only  one  dissenting  vote,  that  of  the  English  represen- 
tative, being  cast.  (See  Alabama  Claims.) 

Georgia.  —  Georgia  was  settled  at  Savannah  by  the  English 
in  1733,  as  a  place  where  insolvent  debtors  and  others  who  had 
been  unfortunate  might  find  a  refuge.  It  was  one  of  the  thirteen 
original  States.  The  State  joined  the  Confederacy,  although 
there  was  a  widespread  sentiment  against  it.  Since  the  war  a 
steady  development  has  been  made.  The  staple  crop  is  Cotton, 
in  the  production  of  which  Georgia  ranks  third  among  the  States ; 
its  crop  of  cotton  has  reached  nearly  1,000,000  bales  in  a  year. 
Corn,  wheat,  oats,  tobacco,  sorghum,  clover,  peanuts,  and  sweet 


184  GERRYMANDER. 

potatoes  are  grown  in  large  quantities.     There  is  a  large  business 

in  fruit  and  in  truck  farming. 

One  of  the  leading  industries  is  Lumbering,  over  200,000,000 
feet  of  lumber  and  timber,  valued  at 
$7,000,000,  being  shipped  annually. 
More  than  $3,000,000  worth  of  tar, 
pitch,  turpentine,  and  resin  have  been 
shipped  in  a  single  year.  Coal-min- 
ing, marble-quarrying,  and  gold-min- 
ing are  carried  on,  with  a  large 
invested  capital.  The  State  has  one 
million  cattle,  worth  $12,500,000; 
400,000  sheep,  worth  $800,000 ;  144,- 
000  mules,  worth  over  $13,000,000, 
and  106,000  horses,  worth  $8,736,000. 
There  are  thirty-two  woollen  mills, 

GREAT    SEAL    OF    GEOKGIA.  ,,f  ,  .„       .   ' 

several  flour  mills,  and  cotton  mills  in 

seven  cities.  The  production  of  cotton  goods  aggregates  $25,- 
000,000  yearly.  The  total  manufactures  aggregate  $37,000,000. 
The  farm  products  are  worth  $112,000,000  yearly. 

The  Population  of  Georgia  in  1880  was  1,542,180;  in  1890, 
it  was  1,833,353  ;  the  real  property  was  valued  at  $192,000,000  ; 
the  personal  property  at  $165,000,000.  The  school  attendance 
was  226,000,  and  there  were  8,000  school  buildings.  There  were 
4,532  miles  of  railroad,  and,  in  1892,  291  newspapers. 

Savannah,  on  the  Savannah  River,  is  a  beautiful  old  city  whose 
streets  are  lined  with  camellias  and  oleanders,  which  grow  as 
trees,  and  whose  sidewalks  are  overhung  with  orange  and  banana 
trees,  myrtles  and  magnolias.  Jt  is  a  great  shipping  centre  for 
the  contiguous  States ;  steamship  lines  run  to  Florida,  Baltimore, 
Philadelphia,  New  York,  and  Boston.  The  exports  exceed  $70- 
000,000  a  year.  The  population  in  1890  was  43,189. 

Atlanta,  which  is  1,067  feet  above  the  sea,  is  a  beautiful 
modern  city  and  a  great  railway  centre.  The  population  in  1890 
was  65,533.  Augusta,  which  is  the  third  city,  has  a  population 
of  33,300.  It  has  eight  cotton  mills,  running  200,000  spindles, 
which  are  operated  by  water  power  canals,  which  cost  $3,000,000. 
The  Governor  of  Georgia  is  W.  J.  Northern  (Democrat),  whose 
term  expires  Nov.  2,  1892.  The  State  is  Democratic. 

Gerrymander. — Gerrymandering  is  the  studied  arrangement  of 
electoral  districts  by  which  one  party  may  have  advantage  over 
another.  It  has  been  practiced  in  nearly  all  of  the  important 
States,  by  both  Democrats  and  Republicans.  There  is  in  Iowa  a 
"  Monkey  Wrench  "  district,  in  Pennsylvania  a  "  Dumb-bell " 


"  GIVE  'EM  JESSIE.' 


135 


district,  in  New  York  a  "  Horse-shoe  "  district,  and  in  Mississippi 
a  "  Shoe-string  "  district,  the  appellations  referring  to  the  shape  of 
the  districts  as  seen  on  the  map.  Gerrymandering  takes  its  name 
from  Elbridge  Gerry,  Governor  of  Massachusetts  in  1814,  and 
from  "  Salamander."  Governor  Gerry  signed  a  bill  readjusting 
certain  districts,  one  of  which  was  so  odd  in  shape  as  to  suggest 
its  likeness  to  a  salamander.  The  editor  of  the  Boston  Centinel, 
Benjamin  Russell,  is  credited  with  having  given  birth  to  the 
word. 

44  Give  'em  Jessie." — This  was  a  campaign  cry  in  the 
Presidential  canvass 
of  1856.  Jessie,  the 
daughter  of  Thomas 
II.  Benton,  of  Mis- 
souri, had  run  away 
with  and  married 
General  Fremont, 
the  Republican  can- 
didate, in  their  youth, 
and  when  Fremont 
was  nominated,  the 
memory  of  the  ro- 
mantic event  caught 
the  popular  sym- 
pathy, which  is 
always  eager  at  elec- 
tion time  to  seize  upon  some  personal  allusion  or  attribute  of  a 
candidate  and  use  it  in  a  political  connection. 

Give  Me  Liberty,  or  Give  Me  Death.     (See   Sayings  of 
Famous  Americans.) 

Gladstone    Of     the     West.     (See   Nicknames    of    Famous 
Americans.) 

God  ill  the  Constitution.      (See    Religious  Denominations.) 

God  Reigns,  and  the  Government  at  Washington  Still 
Lives.      (See  Sayings  of  Famous  Americans.) 

Gold,  Production  Of.      (See  Mining.) 
Good  Enough  Morgan.     (See  Morgan.) 

Good   Templars,   Independent    Order    of.     (See    Secret 
Societies.) 

Good   War  and  a  Bad  Peace.     (See  'Sayings  of    Famous 

Americans.) 

Goose  and  Gridiron.  —  Nicknames  for  the  American  Eagle 
and  the  United  States  Flag. 


STATE    CAPITOL    AT    ATLANTA. 


13G  GUN-BOAT    SYSTEM. 

Grandfather's  Hat.     (See  Presidents  of  the  United  States.) 

Grangers.     (See  Political  Parties.) 

Great  Fires.  —  The  most  destructive  fire  on  this  continent 
was  that  which  broke  out  in  Chicago  on  October  8,  1871,  and 
burned  for  two  days.  It  burned  over  2,000  acres,  and  consumed 
property  valued  at  $195,000,000. 

In  New  York,  in  1835,  over  five  hundred  buildings  and  $20,- 
000,000  worth  of  property  were  destroyed;  in  the  same  city  on 
September  6,  1839,  $10,000,000  worth  of  property  was  des- 
troyed. In  Pittsburg,  April  10,  1845,  one  thousand  buildings 
were  burned ;  loss,  $6,000,000.  In  St.  Louis,  May  4,  1851,  a  large 
portion  of  the  city  was  burned;  loss,  $11,000,000.  In  Portland, 
Me.,  July  4,1866,  the  city  was  almost  entirely  destroyed;  loss, 
$15,000,000.  On  July  14,  1874,  another  great  fire  in  Chicago 
destroyed  $4,000,000  worth  of  property.  In  Boston,  Mass.,  No- 
vember 9,  1872,  nearly  four  hundred  and  fifty  buildings  were  des- 
troyed; loss,  over  $73,000,000.  On  Thanksgiving  Day,  1889,  a  fire 
in  the  business  part  of  Boston  destroyed  nearly  $5,000,000  worth 
of  property. 

Fire  Loss  Since  1875. —  The  aggregate  property  loss  by  fire 
in  1891  was  $131,260,400  ;  in  1890,  $108,993,792  ;  in  1889,  $123,- 
046,833.  The  aggregate  insurance  loss  in  the  same  years  was 
$77,140,200,  $65,015,465,  $73,679,465,  respectively.  The  total 
loss  since  1875,  inclusive,  has  been  $1,615,818,739  ;  total  insurance 
loss,  $911,070,548. 

Causes  of  Fires.  —  The  principal  reported  causes  of  fires? 
and  the  number  of  fires  from  each  cause  in  1890,  were  as  follows  : 
—  Incendiarism,  2,106 ;  defective  flues,  1,239;  sparks  (not  loco- 
motive), 203 ;  matches,  691 ;  explosions  of  lamps  and  lanterns, 
697  ;  stoves,  525  ;  lightning,  625  ;  spontaneous  combustion,  286  ; 
forest  and  prairie  fires,  89 ;  lamp  and  lantern  accidents,  243 ; 
locomotive  sparks,  203 ;  cigar  stubs  and  tobacco  pipes,  223 ;  fric- 
tion in  machinery,  112;  gas-jets,  269;  engines  and  boilers, 
stationary,  124;  furnaces,  134;  firecrackers,  77  ;  ashes  and  hot 
coals,  128.  There  were  9,494  fires  classified  as  "  not  reported," 
and  2,602  as  unknown. 

Lives  Lost  by  Fire. —  In  the  six  years  ending  1888,  the 
number  of  human  lives  lost  in  fires  in  this  country  was  2,975  ;  of 
horses,  15,405  ;  of  cattle,  8,840  ;  of  other  animals,  31,119. 

Gun-Boat  System. —  Jefferson  was  unwilling  to  increase 
the  expenses  of  his  administration,  and  therefore  objected  to  the 
construction  of  a  navy  when  the  English,  in  1805-6,  were  attack- 
ing American  vessels.  He  recommended  instead,  and  Congress 
adopted  a  plan  for  the  building  of  a  number  o£  small  and  inex- 


HARTFOKD    CONVENTION.  137 

pensive  gun-boats.  The  Federalists  laughed  at  this  exhibition  of 
Jeffersonian  simplicity,  and  the  "  gun-boat  system "  became  an 
object  of  their  ridicule. 

Half  Breeds.      (See  Political  Parties.) 
Hail  Columbia.     (See  Songs  of  America.) 

Hard   Cider  Campaign   and   Hard  Cider  Candidate.— 

Used  in  the  Harrison  campaign  of  1840.  It  was  said  of  the 
candidate  that  he  once  lived  in  a  log  cabin,  and  had  only  hard 
cider  to  drink.  Instead  of  having  the  effect  intended,  the  allu- 
sion, with  many  of  the  voters,  was  entirely  favorable  to  the  can- 
didate. (See  Campaign  Songs.) 

Hard  Shells.     (See  Political  Parties.) 

Hartford  Convention.  —  This  memorable  gathering  of  repre- 
sentatives of  the  New  England  States  occurred  at  Hartford, 
Conn.,  December  15,  1814.  Twenty-six  delegates  were  present, 
their  avowed  purpose  being  to  bring  about  a  revision  of  the 
Constitution.  Their  purpose  having  become  known,  they  were 
bitterly  denounced  as  traitors  to  the  government,  and  in  some 
quarters  as  conspirators  in  the  service  of  England.  They  were 
accused  of  being  in  favor  of  dismembering  the  Union,  and  of 
upholding  the  Doctrine  of  State  Rights.  They  disavowed 
any  intention  to  dissolve  the  Union  at  that  time  ;  such  dissolu- 
tion, they  declared,  must  "  be  the  work  of  peaceable  times  and 
deliberate  consent."  Among  the  grievances  recited  were  the 
"  easy  admission  of  naturalized  foreigners  to  places  of  trust,  honor, 
and  profit,"  and  the  easy  formation  of  new  Western  States;  they 
desired  the  defence  of  every  State  to  be  entrusted  to  the  State 
itself,  and  declared  it  to  be  "  as  much  the  duty  of  the  State  authori- 
ties to  watch  over  the  rights  reserved,  as  of  the  United  States  to 
exercise  the  powers  which  are  delegated"  The  Convention  met 
but  once,  and  nothing  was  heard  of  its  contemplated  reforms. 
(See  Secession.) 

Headsman  Clarkson.  (See  Nicknames  of  Famous  Ameri- 
cans.) 

He  Fears  God,  Hates  the  Devil,  and  Votes  the  Straight 
Democratic  Ticket.  (See  Sayings  of  Famous  Americans.) 

He  Smote  the  Rock  of  the  National  Resources,  and 
Abundant  Streams  of  Revenue  Gushed  Forth.  He  Touched 
the  Dead  Corpse  of  Public  Credit,  and  it  Sprang  Upon  its 
Feet.  (See  Sayings  of  Famous  Americans.) 

Hero  Of  Appomattox.     (See  Presidents  of  the  United  States.) 
Hero  of  New  Orleans.    (See  Presidents  of  the  United  States.) 


138  HOW    THE    PRESIDENT   IS    ELECTED. 

Hero  Of  Tippecanoe.  (See  Presidents  of  the  United 
States.) 

Hickory  Broom,  The. —  Andrew  Jackson,  "  Old  Hickory," 
turned  out  of  office  all  office-holders  of  the  opposite  party,  and 
became  thereby  the  father  of  the  "  spoils  system."  It  was  said 
that  he  swept  the  departments  clean ;  hence  the  "  Hickory 
Broom." 

High-Minded  Federalists.     (See  Political  Parties.) 
Homestead  Act.      (See  Public  Lands  and  Land  Grants.) 
Honest  John.     (See  Nicknames  of  Famous  Americans.) 
Honest  Old  Abe.     (See  Presidents  of  the  United  States.) 
Horizontal  Bill.     (See  Nicknames  of  Famous  Americans.) 
How  the  President  Is  Elected. 

Primaries,  Electoral  College, 

District  Delegates,  Presidential  Conventions, 

National  Conventions,     Reapportionment. 

The  first  thing  necessary  to  a  Presidential  election  is  candidates. 
In  the  early  years  of  the  Republic,  candidates  were  chosen  in  a 
caucus  of  the  Congressmen  of  either  party.  Such  a  caucus  was 
unnecessary  in  the  case  of  Washington's  nomination,  for  the 
reason  that  there  was  no  opposition  to  him.  John  Adams  and 
Jefferson,  likewise,  were  nominated,  as  it  were,  by  general  party 
consent. 

The  Congressional  Caucus  was  held  secretly  in  1800,  to 
nominate  candidates  for  President  and  Vice-President .  In  1824, 
the  "era  of  good  feeling"  (which  see),  the  legislatures  of  the 
States,  in  the  case  of  Adams  and  Clay,  made  the  nominations. 
Jackson  was  nominated  by  a  county  convention  in  Tennessee, 
and  by  local  conventions  in  several  other  States.  W.  H.  Craw- 
ford, who  was  also  a  candidate,  revived  the  Congressional  caucus. 
(See  Scrub  Race  for  the  Presidency.)  In  1832,  the  First 
National  Conventions,  which  had  come  to  be  regarded  as  the 
only  proper  method  of  nomination,  were  held  and  put  tickets  in 
the  field.  From  that  day,  the  two  great  parties  and  most  of  the 
smaller  ones  have  chosen  their  candidates  in  national  conventions. 

The  make-up  of  the  national  convention  carries  us  back  to  the 
country  towns  and  the  wards  of  cities.  In  these,  at  stated  times, 
specified  by  district  committees  of  the  districts  in  which  the  towns 
or  wards  are  located,  the  voters  of  both  parties  meet,  separately, 
in  "  Primaries,"  or  caucuses  which  are  conventions  of  the 
voters  in  a  ward  or  a  township.  Those  in  attendance  vote  for 
delegates  from  the  township  or  ward  to  the  district  convention. 


HOW    THE    PRESIDENT    IS    ELECTED. 


139 


140  HOW    THE    PRESIDENT    IS    ELECTED. 

By  this  is  meant,  the  convention  of  the  Congressional  district. 
The  number  of  delegates  is  as  a  rule  apportioned  to  the  popula- 
tion, so  that  one  town  or  ward  may  send  more  delegates  than 
another.  The  party  "  bosses"  usually  have  the  "  ticket"  already 
chosen.  In  some  cities,  the  Australian  system  of  balloting  for 
delegates  is  used.  The  delegates  from  all  the  towns  or  wards  to 
the  district  convention  having  been  chosen,  they  assemble,  on  a 
given  date,  in  the  district  convention,  and  there  choose  two  men 
who  shall  be  Delegates  to  the  national  convention,  and  two 
alternates  who  shall  act  as  delegates  in  the  event  of  the  delegates 
being  prevented  from  serving.  Each  State  has,  therefore,  twice 
as  many  delegates  in  the  national  convention  as  it  has  Congress- 
men ;  besides,  it  sends  to  the  national  convention  four  delegates 
at  large,  who  are  chosen  by  the  State  convention  called  for  the 
purpose. 

The  delegates  having  assembled  in  the  national  convention, 
which  is  held  in  such  city  as  may  be  determined  by  vote  of  the 
national  committee,  a  Platform  of  Principles,  as  drawn  up 
by  the  committee  on  resolutions,  is  read  and  approved.  The 
nominating  speeches  are  made,  and  the  balloting  begins.  In 
Republican  conventions  a  majority  of  the  votes  cast  is  necessary 
to  a  choice  ;  in  Democratic  conventions,  two  thirds  of  the  votes 
are  necessary  to  a  choice.  The  nominations  made,  the  convention 
adjourns,  and  the  campaign  begins  in  earnest.  (See  National 
Committee.)  The  balloting  in  the  Republican  and  Democratic 
conventions  of  1876,  1880,  1884,  and  1888  resulted  as  follows:  — 

National  Conventions.  —  In  the  Democratic  convention  of 
1876,  the  candidate  was  nominated  on  the  second  ballot.  On  the 
first  ballot,  Tilden,  New  York,  had  403£,  on  the  second,  508. 
Necessary  to  a  choice,  492.  Total  vote,  738.  Hendricks, 
Indiana,  had  133£  on  first  ballot,  and  85  on  second;  Hancock, 
Pennsylvania,  77  on  the  first  ballot,  60  on  the  second;  Allen, 
Ohio,  56  on  the  first,  and  54  on  the  second;  Bayard,  Delaware, 
Parker,  New  Jersey,  and  Broadhead,  Missouri,  scattering  votes. 

In  the  Republican  National  convention  of  1876,  the  total  vote 
on  the  decisive  ballot,  the  seventh,  was  756  ;  necessary  to  a  choice, 
379.  Blaine,  Maine,  had  on  the  seven  ballots,  respectively,  291, 
298,  293,  292,  287,  308,  351;  Morton,  Indiana,  had  125,  111, 
113,  108,  95,  85,  — ,  respectively ;  Bristow,  Kentucky,  had  113, 
114,.  121,  126,  114,  111,21,  respectively;  Conkling, "New  York, 
had  96,  93,  90,  84,  82,  81,  — ,  respectively ;  Hayes,  Ohio,  had 
65,64,  67,  68,  102,  113,  384,  respectively,  and  was  nominated; 
Hartranft,  Pennsylvania,  and  Jewell,  Connecticut,  had  scattering 
votes. 

In  the  Democratic  convention  of  1880,  the  total  vote  on  the 


HOW    THE    PRESIDENT   IS   ELECTED.  141 

second  and  decisive  ballot  was  738  ;  necessary  to  a  choice  492. 
Hancock,  Pennsylvania,  had  on  the  two  ballots  171,  320,  respec- 
tively; Bayard,  Delaware,  153£,  113,  respectively ;  Payne,  Ohio, 
Thurman,  Ohio,  Field,  California,  Morrison,  Illinois,  Hendricks, 
Indiana,  and  Tilden,  New  York,  had  scattering  votes.  Han- 
cock was  after  the  second  ballot  nominated  by  acclamation. 

In  the  Republican  Convention  of  1880,  the  total  vote  on  the 
thirty-sixth  and  decisive  ballot  was  755 ;  necessary  to  a  choice 
378.  Grant,  Illinois,  had  on  the  first  ballot  304,  on  the  thirty-first 
ballot,  308,  and  thereon  to  the  thirty-sixth,  309,  309,  312,  313, 
306,  respectively ;  Elaine,  Maine,  on  the  same  ballots  had  284 
276,  270,  275,  275,  257,  42 ;  Sherman,  Ohio,  had  93, 118, 117, 110, 
107,  99,  3  ;  Garfield,  Ohio,  had  on  the  first  ballot  none,  and  on 
the  thirty-first,  thirty-second,  and  thirty-third  ballots,  one,  17  on 
the  thirty-fourth,  50  on  the  thirty-fifth,  and  399  on  the  thirty- 
sixth,  and  was  nominated. 

In  the  Democratic  Convention  of  1884,  the  total  vote  on  the 
second  and  decisive  ballot  was  820  ;  necessary  to  a  choice,  547. 
Cleveland,  New  York,  had  on  the  first  ballot  392,  and  on  the 
second  ballot,  683,  and  was  nominated.  His  nearest  opponents 
were  Bayard,  Delaware,  who  had  on  the  first  ballot  170,  and  on 
the  second,  81^,  Thurman,  Ohio,  who  had  on  the  first  ballot  88, 
and  Randall,  Pennsylvania,  who  had  on  the  first  ballot  78. 

In  the  Republican  Convention  of  1884,  the  total  vote  on  the 
fourth  and  decisive  ballot  was  813 ;  necessary  to  a  choice,  407. 
Elaine,  Maine,  had  on  the  four  ballots  334£,  349,  375,  and  541 
respectively,  and  was  nominated  ;  Arthur,  New  York,  278,  276, 
274,  and  207  respectively ;  Edmunds,  Vermont,  Logan,  Illinois, 
and  Sherman,  Ohio,  had  scattering  votes. 

In  the  Democratic  Convention  of  1888,  Cleveland,  New 
York,  was  nominated  by  acclamation. 

In  the  Republican  Convention  of  1888,  the  total  vote  on  the 
eighth  and  decisive  ballot  was  830  ;  necessary  to  a  choice  416. 
Harrison,  Indiana,  had  on  the  eight  ballots  80,  91,  94,  217,  213, 
231,  278,  544,  respectively,  and  was  nominated;  Sherman,  Ohio, 
had  229,  249,244,235,224,244,  231,  118,  respectively;  Alger, 
Michigan,  had  84,  116,  122,  135,  142, 137, 120, 100,  respectively  ; 
Gresham,  Indiana,  had  111,  108,  123,  98,  87,  91,  91,  59,  respec- 
tively. 

The  work  of  the  national  conventions  done,  the  next  step  is  the 
choosing  of  Presidential  Electors,  who  constitute  the  Elec- 
toral College.  The  Electoral  College  was  an  expedient  adopted 
by  the  framers  of  the  Constitution  which  it  was  calculated  would 
make  the  election  of  the  President  the  duty  of  representative 
men  from  each  State,  men  who  could  be  trusted  to  make  a 


142  HOW    THE    PRESIDENT    IS    ELECTED. 

selection  which  would  be  in  the  highest  interest  of  the  nation.  It 
was  expected  that  on  election  day  the  people  would  vote  not  for 
Presidential  candidates  but  for  electors,  but  while  this  was  a 
pretty  theory,  the  practice  has  ever  since  been  far  different.  The 
electors  are  simply  the  representatives  of  the  candidates,  and  in 
no  instance  has  an  elector  cast  his  ballot  in  opposition  to  the 
candidate  of  the  party.  Under  the  Constitution  each  State  may 
appoint  its  electors  as  the  legislature  sees  fit ;  originally  they 
were  chosen  by  the  legislatures,  but  nowadays,  they  are  nomi- 
nated by  the  party  conventions  of  the  States  and  voted  for  by 
the  people.  Each  State  is  entitled  to  as  many  electors  as  it  has 
Representatives  and  Senators.  A  plurality  .of  the  votes  is  suffi- 
cient to  elect,  but  it  happens  sometimes  that  one  elector  may  be 
chosen  who  has  different  party  affiliations  from  those  of  the  other 
electors.  For  instance,  in  1880,  California  elected  five  Hancock 
electors  and  one  Garfield  elector. 

By  the  Act  of  1792,  the  electors  in  each  State  were  required 
to  assemble  on  the  First  Wednesday  in  December  follow- 
ing their  election  at  a  place  designated  by  the  legislature.  By 
Act  of  Feb.  3,  1887,  the  first  Monday  in  January  is  fixed  for 
their  assembling.  Previously,  the  governor  of  the  State  must 
deliver  to  each  elector  three  certified  lists  of  the  names  of  the 
electors.  Having  voted  for  President  and  Vice- President,  each 
elector  makes  out  three  certificates  of  his  vote,  attaching  to  each 
certificate  a  copy  of  the  certified  list  of  the  electors'  names  deliv- 
ered by  the  governor.  One  copy  goes  by  messenger  to  the 
President  of  the  United  States  Senate  at  Washington  before  the 
first  Wednesday  in  January;  another  copy  is  sent  to  him  through 
the  mails ;  the  third  is  deposited  with  the  United  States  judge 
for  the  district  in  which  the  electors  have  met.  If  neither  of  the 
first  two  copies  reach  their  destination  by  the  first  Wednesday  in 
January,  a  special  messenger  is  sent  to  the  judge  to  obtain  the 
third.  This  interval  of  a  month  was  decided  upon  in  order  to 
allow  for  the  slowness  in  getting  the  returns  in,  due  to  poor  trav- 
elling facilities.  Messengers  who  carry  the  electoral  votes  are 
allowed  twenty-five  cents  a  mile,  and  are  subject  to  a  fine  of  one 
thousand  dollars  if  they  are  found  guilty  of  neglect  of  duty. 

By  the  Second  Wednesday  in  February,  Congress  is 
required  to  be  in  session,  when  the  votes  are  unsealed  by  the 
President  of  the  Senate,  in  the  presence  of  both  Houses  of  Con- 
gress, and  counted.  The  pel-son  having  the  highest  number  shall 
be  the  President. 

By  the  Reapportionment  Act,  passed  by  the  Fifty-First 
Congress,  the  Electoral  College  now  consists  of  442  electors,  or 
forty-one  more  than  up  to  1891.  The  successful  candidate  for 


HUB    OF    THE    UNIVERSE.  143 

President  must,  therefore,  have  223  electoral  votes.  The  admis- 
sion of  Idaho,  Montana,  North  Dakota,  South  Dakota,  and 
Wyoming  Territories  into  the  Union,  and  the  reapportionment 
of  Congressional  districts  in  eighteen  of  the  States,  both  of  which 
have  occurred  since  the  last  national  election,  account  for  this 
increase.  By  the  new  arrangement,  Massachusetts  gained  one 
vote,  New  Jersey  one,  Pennsylvania  two  votes,  Arkansas  one, 
California  one,  Colorado  one,  Georgia  one,  Illinois  two,  Kansas 
one,  Michigan  one,  Minnesota  two,  Missouri  one,  Nebraska  three, 
Oregon  one,  Texas  two,  and  Wisconsin  one,  twenty-one  in  all. 
The  new  States  are  together  entitled  to  twenty.  Each  State 
now  votes  in  the  Electoral  College  as  follows:  Alabam.a,  11; 
Arkansas,  8  ;  California,  9  ;  Colorado,  4 ;  Connecticut,  6  ;  Dela- 
ware, 3  ;  Florida,  4;  Georgia,  13  ;  Idaho,  3  ;  Illinois,  24 ;  Indiana, 
15;  Iowa,  13;  Kansas,  10;  Kentucky,  13;  Louisiana,  8;  Maine, 
6;  Maryland,  8;  Massachusetts,  15;  Michigan,  14;  Minnesota, 
9;  Mississippi,  9;  Missouri,  17;  Montana,  3;  Nebraska,  84. 
Nevada,  3;  New  Hampshire,  4;  New  Jersey,  10;  New  York, 
36;  North  Carolina,  11 ;  North  Dakota,  3;  Ohio,  23 ;  Oregon,  4; 
Pennsylvania,  32 ;  Rhode  Island,  4 ;  South  Carolina,  9 ;  South 
Dakota,  4;  Tennessee,  12;  Texas,  15  ;  Vermont,  4;  Virginia,  12; 
Washington,  4 ;  West  Virginia,  6  ;  Wisconsin,  12  ;  Wyoming,  3; 
total,  442  ;  necessary  to  choice,  223. 

Hub  of  the  Universe.  —  Referring  to  Boston  as  being  the 
centre  of  advanced  thought  and  political  progress.  It  was  first 
used  by  Dr.  Oliver  Wendell  Holmes,  who  said  that  "Boston 
State  House  is  the  hub  of  the  solar  system.  You  couldn't  pry 
that  out  of  a  Boston  man  if  you  had  the  tire  of  all  creation 
straightened  out  for  a  crow-bar." 

Hunkers.     (See  Political  Parties.) 

I  Am  Content.     (See  Sayings  of  Famous  Americans.) 

I  Am  a  Democrat.     (See  Sayings  of  Famous  Americans.) 

I  Have  Killed  Seventeen  Roman  Pro-Consuls.  (See  Say- 
ings of  Famous  Americans.) 

I  Propose  to  Fight  It  Out  on  This  Line  if  It  Takes  All 
Summer.  (See  Sayings  of  Famous  Americans.) 

I  Still  Live.     (See  Sayings  of  Famous  Americans.) 

I  Was  Born  an  American,  I  Live  an  American,  I  Shall 
Die  ail  American.  (See  Sayings  of  Famous  Americans.) 

Idaho.  —  Idaho  was  settled  at  Fort  Hall,  in  1834.  It  was 
first  entered  by  white  men  of  Lewis  and  Clark's  exploring  party, 
in  1856 ;  it  remained  a -Territory  until  1892,  when  it  was  admitted 
as  a  State. 


144 


ID  ABO. 


The  chief  industry  is  Mining,  and  the  State  contains  some  of 
the  richest  veins  in  America  ;  it  has  produced  over  $160,000,000 
in  the  precious  metals.  It  produces,  also,  copper,  iron,  mica,  coal, 
marble,  limestone,  sandstone,  and  salt.  Irrigation  is  necessary  in 
the  southern  counties,  but  not  in  the  northern  ones.  The  State 
produces  over  1,500,000  bushels  of  wheat,  and  1,300,000  bushels 
of  oats ;  also  barley,  hay,  flax,  rye,  alfalfa,  sorghum,  and  wild 
fruits  in  great  abundance. 

As  a  Grazing  Country,  it  has  fine  facilities,  which  are  used 
for  600,000  horses  and  cattle  and  350,000  sheep.  It  has  several 


BEFOKE    THE    PIONEER. 


beautiful  lakes,  the  chief  of  which  are  Lake  Pen  d'Oreilles,  which 
is  thirty  miles  long,  and  three  to  fifteen  miles  wide,  having  numer- 
ous islands,  and  is  encircled  by  lofty  mountains  with  snowy  peaks. 
Cffiur  d'Alene  Lake  is  twenty-five  miles  long,  one  to  four  miles 
wide,  with  a  depth  of  180  feet,  and  has  clear,  greenish  water, 
which  is  stocked  with  millions  of  game  fish.  The  Shoshone 
Falls,  in  the  Snake  River,  descend  over  a  semi-circular  cliff,  225 
high,  in  a  mighty  stream  950  wide. 

The  population  of  Idaho,  in  1880,  was  32,610  ;  in  1890,  84,- 
305.  The  taxable  property  was  valued  at  $36,000,000;  the 
manufactures  were  worth  $1,200,000  ;  the  farm  land  was  valued 
at  $2,800,000.  There  were  in  1890,  844  miles  of  railroad, 
10,333  school  children,  and  38  newspapers.  There  are  in  the 
State  42  Mormon  churches,  with  237  priests  and  6,000  members. 
There  are  several  reservations  for  Indians.  The  chief  cities  are 
Boise  City,  population  4,000  ;  Pocatello,  population  2,500  ;  and 
Hailey,  population  2,000. 

The  Governor  of  Idaho  is  Norman  B.  Willey  (Republican), 
whose  term  expires  January  1,  1893.  The  history  of  the  State 
shows  it  to  be  Republican. 

If  Anyone  Attempts  to  Haul  Down  the  American  Flag, 


ILLINOIS.  145 

Shoot  Him  on  the  Spot.  (See  Sayings  of  Famous  Ameri- 
cans.) 

Illinois.  —  Illinois  was  settled  at  Kaskaskia  in  1720,  by  the 
French;  it  was  admitted  as  a  State 
in  1818.  The  Mormons  entered  the 
State  in  1840,  and  erected  a  temple  at 
Xauvoo,  on  the  Mississippi  River. 
The  Mormon  chiefs,  Joseph  and  Hiram 
Smith,  were  imprisoned  at  Carthage 
and  put  to  death  by  a  mob  ;  the  rest 
of  the  band  were  forced  to  leave  the 
State  and  went  farther  West.  Illinois 
received  a  large  part  of  the  immigra- 
tion to  the  West,  and  her  development 
since  1850  has  been  truly  wonderful. 
The  Farm  Products  have  reached 

GREAT     SEAL    OF    ILLINOIS.  &-,~A  ,  , 

§2/0,000,000  in  a  single  year  (grain, 

$145,000,000  ;  live-stock,  $50,000,000  ;  dairy  products,  $27,000,- 
000;  hay  and  potatoes,  $26,000,000).  The  farm  property  is 
valued  at  above  61,000,000,000.  As  a  producer  of  wheat  and 
corn,  Illinois  holds  high  rank  among  the  States.  For  many  years- 
the  wheat  crop  averaged  30,000,000  bushels,  but  owing  to  the 
small  prices  of  Avheat  the  industry  has  fallen  away.  The  State 
raises  large  crops  of  oats,  grass-seed,  flax-seed,  broom-corn, 
honey,  and  bees- wax ;  the  fruit  industry  is  an  important  one, 
peaches,  strawberries,  apples,  and  several  kinds  of  berries  and 
grapes  being  produced  in  abundant  quantity. 

Illinois  has  more  than  One  Million  Horses,  including  many 
thoroughbreds,  which  are  valued  at  $75,000,000.  In  the  number 
of  its  horses  it  is  the  first  State  in  the  Union.  It  has  1,205,000 
cattle,  valued  at  $50,000,000,  of  which  700,000  are  milch  cows. 
The  milk  produced  aggregates  100,000,000  gallons,  for  city  con- 
sumption alone  ;  from  the  rest  there  are  made  25,000,000  pounds 
of  butter  and  7,000,000  pounds  of  cheese.  The  wool  product 
has  reached  6,000,000  pounds  in  a  year. 

There  are  valuable  Coal  Fields  in  three  fourths  of  the  State, 
producing  bituminous,  block,  and  cannel  coal.  There  are  800 
mines,  30,000  miners,  and  the  coal  product  amounts  to  11,500,- 
000  tons  a  year.  The  output  of  pig-iron  in  1889  was  674,506 
tons.  Lead,  zinc,  salt,  limestone,  sandstone,  and  marble  are  other 
products  of  the  Garden  State. 

Illinois  has  numerous  educational  institutions,  the  public  school 
and  State  educational  property  being  valued  at  $27,000,000.  The 
Chicago  University  has  been  endowed  by  J.  D.  Rockefeller 


146 


ILLINOIS. 


with  over  $2,500,000;  there  are  twenty-four  colleges,  and  the 
public  school  attendance  is  538,310.  The  population  in  1870  was 
2,539,891;  in  1880  it  was  3,077,871;  in  1890  it  was  3,818,536. 
The  real  property  was  valued  at  $576,000,000 ;  the  personal 
property  at  $221,000,000.  The  manufactures  aggregated  in  1890 
$415,000,000.  The  acreage  of  farm  lands  was  32,500,000,  valued 
at  $1,010,000,000.  There  were  1,714  newspapers  in  1892,  and  in 
1890,  10,213  miles  of  railroad. 

Chicago,  the  chief  city,  is  situated  at  the  southern  extremity 

of  Lake  Michi- 
gan, and  is  the 
foremost  ship- 
ping centre  of 
the  Great  Lakes, 
and  is  second 
only  to  New 
York.  Here  the 
cereals  of  the 
N  orthwest, 
landed  by  rail  in 
her  mammoth 
grain  elevators, 
are  transferred 
to  propell  e  r  s , 
barges,  and 
schooners,  and 
carried  through 
Lakes  H  u  r  o  n 
and  Erie  to  Buf- 
falo, thence  to 
New  York  by  rail  or  by  the  Erie  Canal.  In  the  number  of  its 
entrances  and  clearances  Chicago  outranks  New  York.  Her  en- 
trances and  clearances  in  1890  were  21,054,  with  a  tonnage  of 
10,288,688 ;  New  York's  entrances  and  clearances  numbered 
15,283 ;  those  of  the  entire  Atlantic  seaboard  were  37,756. 

Situated  as  Chicago  is  at  the  centre  of  the  most  extensive  sys- 
tem of  railroads  in  the  world,  bringing  to  her  grain  elevators  and 
storehouses  the  almost  inexhaustible  products  of  the  rich  western 
and  northwestern  country,  with  an  easy  route  to  the  domestic 
and  foreign  markets,  and  with  facilities  for  Manufacturing  which 
are  almost  as  good  as  those  of  New  York,  it  is  not  surprising  that 
her  trade  and  commerce  have  so  developed  that  she  stands  to-day 
second  in  wealth  and  population  of  the  American  cities.  Her 
total  trade  for  1890  aggregated  $1,440,000,000.  There  are 
twenty-eight  foundries,  eighty  machinery  and  boiler  works, 


COURT-HOUSE    AND    POST-OFFICE,    CHICAGO. 


ILLINOIS. 


147 


seventy  iron,  tin,  and  slate  roofing  works,  six  rolling  mills,  several 
manufactories  of  agricultural  implements,  carriages,  furniture, 
clothing,  leathei',  liquors,  tobacco,  etc.  The  manufactories  num- 
ber over  three  thousand,  and  their  annual  output  aggregates 
$550,000,000.  The  Union  Stock  Yards  received  in  1891,  8,848,- 
500  hogs,  1,202,824  sheep,  3,303,669  cattle  (an  average  of  10,500 
a  day),  205,010  calves,  and  95,959  horses.  The  products  of  the 
packing  houses  in  canned,  cured,  and  dressed  meats,  and  pork 
aggregated  2,000,000,000  pounds. 

The  Grain  Receipts  were  232,000,000  bushels.  The  exports 
of  fresh  beef  aggregated  200,000,000  pounds.  The  building  of 
ships  in  Chicago  has  become  an  important  industry. 

The  million-dollar  building  in  Chicago  is  no  longer  uncommon. 
The  Court- 
Ho  use  and 
City  Hall,  of 
French  Renais- 
sance architecture, 
built  of  marble 
and  granite,  with 
s  t  a  t  u  ar  y,  cost 
$4,000,000.  The 
Post-Office  and 
Custom  House,  in 
the  Venetian  Ro- 
manesque style, 
cost  $6,000,000. 
The  fine  business 
buildings  are  not 
as  numerous  as, 
but  are  no  less 
costly  than  those 
of  New  York. 
The  new  Masonic 
temple  cost  $3,- 
000,000;  the  W.  C.  T.  U.  temple,  $1,000,000;  the  Chamber  of 
Commerce,  $3,000,000,  while  the  churches  and  many  of  the 
private  residences  are  most  magnificent.  Among  the  features  of 
the  city  are  the  Board  of  Trade,  the  system  of  parks  surrounding 
the  city  covering  upwards  of  eight  hundred  acres,  and  constructed 
at  a  cost  of  $10,000,000,  the  Libby  Prison,  transferred  from  its 
original  site  at  Richmond,  Va.,  the  beautiful  Auditorium  Build- 
ing, with  its  spacious  Opera  House  and  tall  tower  overlooking  the 
lake,  and  the  beautiful  Michigan  Avenue  drive.  (For  Exposition 
Buildings  see  World's  Columbian  Exposition.) 


CHAMBER    OF    COMMERCE,     CHICAGO. 


148  IMPEACHMENT    OF    ANDKEW   JOHNSON. 

The  Population  of  Chicago  in  1890  was  1,099,850.  Peoria, 
the  second  city,  had  41,024  inhabitants  in  1890,  has  a  fine  county 
court  house,  several  large  elevators,  and  important  manufactures. 
It  is  a  large  grain  shipping  centre.  Springfield  is  the  capital,  and 
the  site  of  the  Lincoln  monument.  (See  Burial  Places  of  Presi- 
dents.) The  population  in  1890  was  24,963.  Joseph  W.  Fifer 
(Rep.)  is  Governor  of  Illinois.  His  term  expires  January  4, 1893. 
The  State  is  Republican 

Immigration,  Restriction  of . —  The  new  Immigration  Act 
passed  by  the  Fifty-First  Congress  was  amendatory  to  the  existing 
law.  Besides  Chinese  laborers,  it  excludes  from  admission  into  the 
United  States  all  idiots,  insane  persons,  paupers,  or  persons  likely 
to  become  a  public  charge,  persons  suffering  from  a  loathsome 
disease  or  a  dangerous  contagious  disease,  persons  who  have 
been  convicted  of  a  felony  or  other  infamous  crime  or  mis- 
demeanor involving  moral  turpitude,  polygamists,  and  also  any 
person  whose  ticket  or  passage  is  paid  for  with  the  money  of 
another,  or  who  is  assisted  by  others  to  come,  unless  it  is  affirma- 
tively and  satisfactorily  shown  on  special  inquiry  that  such 
person  does  not  belong  to  one  of  the  foregoing  excluded  classes, 
or  to  the  class  of  contract  laborers.  Persons  living  in  the  United 
States  may  assist  friends  or  relatives  who  are  not  of  the  excluded 
classes.  Persons  convicted  of  a  political  offence  are  not  to  be 
excluded  from  immigration. 

To  induce  immigration  by  advertisements  of  any  kind  in  foreign 
countries  is  prohibited  except  when  done  by  States  or  State 
Immigration  bureaus.  A  fine  of  one  thousand  dollars  or  an 
imprisonment  of  not  more  than  one  year  is  prescribed  for  bring- 
ing or  aiding  in  bringing  into  this  country  any  alien  excluded  by 
law.  (For  Statistics  of  Immigration  see  Population  and  Area.) 

Impeachment  of  Andrew  Johnson. —  In  August,  1867, 
President  Johnson  notified  Secretary  of  War  Stanton  that  his 
resignation  was  requested,  in  consequence  of  "  public  considera- 
tions of  a  high  character."  On  Stanton's  refusal  to  resign,  the 
President  suspended  him,  General  Grant  being  appointed  Secre- 
tary of  War  ad  interim.  The  Senate  declined  to  agree  to  Stan- 
ton's  removal.  Grant  then  declined  to  serve,  and  Stanton  took  pos- 
session again.  The  President  again  removed  Stanton,  who  notified 
the  House  of  Representatives,  which  body,  on  February  24, 1868, 
resolved  that  the  President  be  impeached  for  high  crimes  and 
misdemeanors.  The  Senate,  sitting  as  a  Court  of  Impeachment, 
tried  the  case,  Chief  Justice  Chase  presiding. 

The  Articles  of  Impeachment  charged  that  the  President,  in 
violation  of  the  Tenure  of  Office  Act  (this  was  a  new  law  which 


INDIANA.  149 

provided  that  civil  officers  should  hold  office  until  their  successors 
should  qualify,  and  giving  the  Senate  final  powers  of  removal, 
instead  of  the  President),  had  removed  Stanton  and  appointed 
Thomas ;  that  he  had  been  guilty  of  intimidation  of  the  former 
and  of  an  attempt  to  seize  unlaAvfully  the  property  and  money  of 
the  War  Department;  that  he  had  declared  that  the  Thirty-Ninth 
Congress  was  not  a  legally  constituted  body,  and  that  he  had 
failed  to  properly  execute  its  acts.  The  counsel  for  the  President 
argued  that  the  removal  of  Stanton  and  the  appointment  of 
Thomas  did  not  come  within  the  provisions  of  the  Tenure  of 
Office  Act,  but  were  legal  according  to  the  laws  of  1789  and 
1795,  which  were  the  only  controlling  ones  in  this  case  ;  that  he 
was  not  guilty  of  the  other  charges,  except  those  in  regard  to  his 
declarations  concerning  Congress,  and  that  as  to  those  he  was 
protected  by  the  rights  of  freedom  of  opinion  and  freedom  of 
speech.  Votes  on  two  of  the  articles  were  taken  ;  the  result  was 
thirty-five  for  conviction,  and  nineteen  for  acquittal,  thus  lacking 
one  vote  of  the  two  thirds  necessary  for  conviction.  Chief  Justice 
Chase  ordered  a  Verdict  of  Acquittal,  and  Johnson  served  out 
his  full  term.  Stanton  resigned  in  regular  form  July  27,  1868. 

Impending  Crisis. —  A  stereotyped  phrase  used  by  cam- 
paign orators  to  designate  a  particularly  dangerous  condition  of 
affairs.  It  was  used  first  by  H.  R.  Helper,  a  North  Carolinian, 
who  published  a  book  in  1868,  entitled  "The  Impending  Crisis  of 
the  South." 

Imports.     (See  Exports  and  Imports.) 
In  God  We  Trust.     (See  Coinage,  Free  Coinage,  etc.) 
Indian  Population.      (See  Population  and  Area.) 
Indian   Schools.     (See  Education.) 

Indiana.  —  Indiana  was  first  visited  by  La  Salle  in  1669.  It 
was  settled  at  Vincennes,  in  1702,  by  the  French  ;  it  was  admitted 
to  the  Union  in  1816.  More  than  one  third  of  its  surface  is 
still  covered  with  forests,  and  the  Lumber  Product  is  above 
$16,000,000  yearly.  The  valley  drained  by  the  Wabash  River 
is  a  rich  region  for  corn  and  wheat. 

The  corn  crop  sometimes  amounts  to  130,000,000  bushels, 
valued  at  over  $30,000,000 .  The  acreage  for  wheat  is  30,000,000 ; 
the  crop  exceeds  40,000,000  bushels,  valued  at  $30,000,000.  Large 
crops  of  oats,  rye,  barley,  sorghum,  tobacco,  etc.,  are  produced, 
and  the  hay  crop  has  reached  2,900,000  tons,  valued  at  $35,000,000. 
Fruit  is  an  extensive  industry,  yielding  peaches  and  apples  in 
large  quantities.  The  farm  products  in  1880  were  worth  $308,- 
000,000,  of  which  dairy  products  form  a  large  part. 


150  INDIAN    TERRITORY. 

There  are  over  seven  thousand  square  miles  of  bituminous  coal. 
Natural  gas  is  found  in  several  coun- 
ties, issuing  from  four  hundred  wells. 
The  manufactures  of  Indiana  number 
over  eight  thousand,  employing  over 
seventv  thousand  persons,  and  a  cap- 
ital of  "$65,000,000. 

The  population  in  1880  was  1,987,- 
301 ;  in  1890,  2,192,404.  The  State 
debt  in  1890  was  $3,661,723 ;  the 
real  property  was  valued  at  $567,000,- 
000  ;  the  personal  property  $227,000,- 
000. 

GREAT  SEAL  OF  INDIANA.  The      Manufactures      yearly 

amount  to   $148,000,000;    there   are 

21,000,000  acres  of  farm  land,  valued  at  $635,000,000.  There 
are  ten  thousand  public  schools,  writh  a  daily  attendance  of  409,- 
000.  There  are  6,046  miles  of  railroad  and  698  newspapers. 

The  leading  educational  institutions  are  Pardue  University  at 
Lafayette,  Indiana  University  at  Bloomington,  the  University  of 
Notre  Dame  at  South  Bend,  Wabash  College  at  Crawfordsville, 
and  there  are  many  other  institutions  including  several  Normal 
schools. 

Indianapolis  is  the  capital  and  chief  city,  having  a  popu- 
lation in  1890  of  105,436.  It  is  a  large  railroad  and  manufactur- 
ing centre,  producing  $28,000,000  in  a  year.  Flour-milling, 
meat-packing,  and  grain  are  the  chief  industries.  It  has  a 
magnificent  court-house,  and  is  the  site  of  the  United  States 
Arsenal.  A  fine  Soldiers'  Monument  is  an  attractive  feature. 
Evansville,  on  the  Ohio  River,  is  a  coal,  lumber,  tobacco,  and  grain 
shipping  point,  and  has  four  hundred  factories,  employing  over 
ten  thousand  people.  Fort  Wayne,  the  third  city,  has  a  popula- 
tion of  35,593  and  is  a  railway  and  manufacturing  centre. 

The  Governor  of  Indiana  is  Ira  J.  Chase  (Republican),  whose 
term  expires  January  12,  1893.  Politically  the  State  is  a  doubt- 
ful one.  Garfield  carried  it  in  1880,  and  Cleveland  in  1884. 
Harrison  carried  the  State  in  1884. 

Indian  Territory. —  The  unorganized  territory  of  the  United 
States,  which  extends  from  latitude  33°  35'  to  37°  north,  and 
longitude  94°  20'  to  103°  west,  forms  the  Indian  Territory.  It 
was  part  of  the  Louisiana  purchase,  and  has  been  from  time  to 
time  cut  down  to  form  States  and  Territories.  Except  in  the 
west,  which  is  an  arid  plain,  rivers  are  plentiful.  These  are  the 
Arkansas,  and  its  tributaries  the  Verdigris,  Neosho,  Illinois, 


INDIAK   TERRITORY. 


151 


from  the  north,  and  the  Canadian,  Cimarron,  Black  Bear,  Little 
Arkansas,  Poteau,  and  North  Fork  from  the  west ;  there  is  also 
the  Red  River  on  the  southern  boundary. 

Of  the  41,000,000  acres  in  the  Territory,  nearly  26,000,000  have 
been  surveyed  and  set  apart  as  Reservations  for  the  Indians. 
These  have  been  gathered  from  all  parts  of  the  country  —  from 
Oregon  to  Florida  —  in  pursuance  of  the  general  plan  of  congre- 
gating all  the  Indians  in  one  territory,  to  be  theirs  forever. 

The   United  States  Government   holds  the   right  of   eminent 


INDIANA    STATE    CAPITOL    AT    INDIANAPOLIS. 

domain  over  the  lands  of  the  five  tribes,  the  Indians  being  fee- 
simple  owners,  but  not  sovereign,  though  enjoying  to  some  degree 
the  powers  of  self-government. 

The  United  States  Indian  Agency  for  the  five  tribes  is 
located  at  Muscogee,  and  has  jurisdiction  over  all  persons,  whether 
Indian  or  white,  residing  in  the  Indian  country.  Forty-three 
Indian  policemen  are  attached  to  the  agency.  These  officers  are 
engaged  in  the  suppression  of  crime,  the  prevention  of  the  intro- 
duction of  whiskey,  and  serving  orders  issued  by  the  agent. 
Each  of  the  civilized  tribes  is  governed  by  a  Principal  Chief  and 
a  Second  Chief,  elected  for  from  two  to  four  years,  an  annual 
legislature  of  two  houses,  elected  for  from  two  to  four  years,  and 
a  judiciary  system. 

There  are  over  400,000  acres  under  cultivation,  which  produce 


152  INTERNAL    REVENUE. 

large  amounts  of  corn,  wheat,  and  oats,  60,000  bales  of  cotton, 
besides  vegetables  and  hay.  The  Indians  have  over  750,000 
head  of  live  stock.  Among  the  other  products  are  lumber, 
woollen  blankets,  shawls,  willow-baskets,  rice,  and  maple  sugar. 
The  population  of  Indian  Territory  in  1890  was  186,390  Indians, 
107,987  white  persons,  and  52,065  Indians  not  belonging  to  the 
five  tribes.  There  were  880  miles  of  railroads,  and  eleven  news- 
papers. 

Innocuous  Desuetude.     (See  Slang  of  Politics.) 

Ins  and  Outs.     (See  Slang  of  Politics.) 

Insanity. — The  number  of  insane  persons  treated  in  1889  at 
the  public  and  private  asylums  for  the  insane  was  97,535.  The 
average  cost  per  head  in  the  public  asylums  was  $161.  The 
number  of  public  asylums  was  125,  of  private  asylums,  38,  of 
which  25  were  in  the  North  Atlantic  States. 

Interior  Department.      (See  Federal  Government.) 

Internal  Revenue. —  The  internal  revenue  of  the  government 
nowadays  is  derived  from  tobacco,  distilled  spirits,  fermented 
liquors,  bank  circulation,  and  oleomargarine.  In  the  early  days 
of  the  government  taxes  were  levied  on  various  articles  of  human 
utility  and  luxury,  including  wines  and  liquors,  snuff,  sugar, 
auction  sales,  paper,  and  parchment,  and  as  late  as  1814,  on  iron, 
candles,  umbrellas,  beer,  boots  and  hats,  gold  and  silver,  watches, 
household  furniture,  etc.  The  enforcement  of  the  tax  on  spirits, 
in  1791,  led  to  the  Whiskey  Insurrection  in  Western  Penn- 
sylvania, where  whiskey  was  manufactured.  The  insurrection 
was  put  down  with  the  loss  of  only  two  lives.  The  imposition 
of  this  form  of  direct  taxation  was  the  conception  of  Alexander 
Hamilton,  who  proposed  it  as  a  means  of  meeting  the  expenses 
of  the  government.  It  was  valuable  also  in  time  of  war,  or 
threatened  war,  and  the  tax  was  especially  heavy  after  the  war 
with  England  in  1812-13.  These  taxes,  however,  were  abolished 
in  1818,  and  were  not  re-imposed  until  1861,  when  the  govern- 
ment levied  direct  taxes  in  order  to  raise  funds  for  maintaining 
the  war.  On  July  1,  1862,  an  exhaustive  Internal  Revenue 
Act  was  passed,  levying  taxes  on  all  sorts  and  kinds  of  articles, 
on  trades,  incomes,  sales,  manufactures,  legacies,  etc.  More  than 
twenty-five  acts  on  the  same  subject  were  passed  within  the  next 
six  years.  The  revenues  were  very  large,  but  the  people  made 
no  objection.  Since  that  period  reductions  in  the  number  of 
articles  taxed  were  regularly  made  until,  in  1872,  only  tobacco, 
distilled  spirits,  fermented  liquors,  and  bank  circulation  remained  ; 
in  1886  oleomargarine  was  added. 

Up  to  1800,  the  Receipts  from  internal   revenue   averaged 


INVENTIONS.  153 

$500,000  a  year.  In  the  fourth  year  of  the  Civil  War,  the 
revenue  was  $'209,464,215  ;  in  1866,  $309,226,813.  The  revenue 
has  diminished  steadily  since  that  time,  but  since  1888  it  has 
increased  above  the  average  of  the  preceding  years.  In  1891, 
the  revenue  was  $145,686,249,  of  which  $111,901,094  was  for 
distilled  spirits  and  fermented  liquors,  and  $32,796,271  was  for 
tobacco.  The  total  internal  revenue  receipts  from  1789  to  1891 
have  been  $4,111,760,798.  The  tax  on  oleomargarine  is  about 
$800,000  a  year.  The  State  paying  the  heaviest  tax  on  liquors  is 
Illinois,  which  in  1891  paid  $33,049,373  ;  Kentucky  is  second, 
paying  in  1891,  $15,252,118. 

Inter-State  Commerce  Act,  The.  —  The  purpose  of  this 
act  was  to  establish  some  sort  of  control  over  the  railroads  of 
the  country,  by  which  unjust  and  unreasonable  charges  and 
unjust  discrimination  should  be  prevented,  to  establish  a  schedule 
of  regular  rates  for  freight  and  passengers,  and  in  other  ways  to 
bring  about  better  service  of  the  public,  and  to  put  an  end  to 
railroad  wars,  causing  interruptions  to  business  and  inconvenience 
to  the  public.  Penalties  shall  be  exacted  for  "  pooling,"  for  com- 
binations to  prevent  continuous  carriage,  for  making  one  rate  to 
one  person  and  another  rate  for  the  same  distance  to  another,  or 
for  discriminating  in  favor  of  particular  localities.  Some  criticism 
was  made  of  the  act  on  the  ground  that  it  tended  toward  govern- 
mental control,  but  the  law  has  been  in  operation  since  February, 
1887,  and  gives  general  satisfaction.  The  Commission  consists  of 
five  members,  who  receive  a  salary  of  $7,000  a  year.  The  Fifty- 
First  Congress  amended  the  act  creating  the  Commission,  giving 
it  authority  to  request  United  States  District  Attorneys  to  prose- 
cute all  persons  violating  its  provisions. 

In  the  Name  of  the  Great  Jehovah  and  the  Continental 

Congress.      (See  Sayings  of  Famous  Americans.) 

Inventions,  Great  American. 

Telegraph.  Sewing  Machine. 

Telephone.  Cotton-gin. 

Phonograph. 

The  American  inventions  of  a  distinctly  American  origin, 
which  more  than  any  others  have  contributed  to  the  convenience 
of  humanity,  are  the  telegraph,  the  telephone,  the  sewing-machine, 
the  cotton-gin,  and  the  phonograph. 

Telegraph,  The. —  In  the  days  before  the  telegraph,  com- 
munication between  distant  points  was  carried  on  by  means  of 
signals.  The  Romans  burnt  fires  of  different  substances,  each 
one  representing  a  word  or  words.  The  American  Indians  talked 


154 


INVENTIONS. 


with  one  another  in  much  the  same  way,  having  signal  stations 
at  chosen  points  through  the  country.  In  the  17t.li  and  18th 
centuries,  several  systems  of  telegraphic  signals  were  discussed, 
some  of  which  were  put  in  operation.  A  Frenchman  by  the 
name  of  Chappe,  in  1792,  constructed  a  post  with  a  bar  capable 
of  being  inclined  at  any  angle,  and  with  the  aid  of  ropes,  and  an 
abbreviated  alphabet,  a  code  of  signals  was  operated.  This  and 


the  other  methods  experimented  with  depended  upon  the  eye, 
could  only  be  used  for  short  distances,  and  never  in  foul  weather. 
In  the  18th  and  the  early  years  of  the  19th  century,  experiments 
with  the  electric  current  were  carried  on  in  Europe  and  in  this 
country,  but  it  remained  for  an  American  inventor  to  conceive 
and  operate  the  First  Efficient  Machine  for  utilizing  the 
current. 

It  has  always  been  a  matter  of  controversy  as  to  when,  where, 


INVENTIONS.  155 

and  by  whom  the  electric  current  was  utilized  first  for  telegraphic 
communication.  There  is  evidence  that  Alfred  Vail,  operating  at 
Speedwell,  N.  J.,  on  January  6,  1838,  sent  to  his  father,  by  the 
dot  and  dash  code,  a  message  thus:  "A  patient  waiter  is  no 
loser."  On  May  6,  1844,  the  Whig  National  Convention  assem- 
bled at  Baltimore.  Between  Annapolis  and  Washington,  on  that 
day,  Prof.  S.  F.  B.  Morse,  and  his  assistant,  Alfred  Vail,  had  a 
circuit,  which  was  part  of  the  circuit  which  a  few  days  later  was 
operated  between  Baltimore  and  Washington. ,  In  Washington 
there  was  much  curiosity  regarding  the  ticket  nominated  at 
Baltimore.  A  train  which  arrived  at  Annapolis  had  on  board 
several  of  the  delegates,  from  whom  Vail,  who  was  at  work  at  this 
point,learned  that  the  ticket  nominated  was  Clay  and  Frelinghuysen. 
This  information  he  telegraphed  to  Washington  as  follows:  "  The 
ticket  is  Clay  and  Frelinghuysen."  This  message  was  received 
by  Professor  Morse  in  the  presence  of  several  members  of  Con- 
gress. Later  in  the  same  month,  the  line  between  Washington 
and  Baltimore  was  opened.  The  instrument  used  was  that  of 
Professor  Morse's  invention.  Before  sending  the  first  message 
over  the  wire,  lie  asked  Miss  Annie  Ellsworth  to  suggest  the 
proper  message  for  so  important  an  experiment.  She  gave  the 
message,  "  What  Hath  God  Wrought?" 

From  this  small  beginning  there  has  grown  a  world-compassing 
system  of  telegraph  communication,  which  is  one  of  the  marvel- 
lous achievements  of  the  nineteenth  century.  The  practical 
monopoly  of  the  business  is  in  the  hands  of  the  Western  Union 
Telegraph  Company,  although  there  are  several  independent 
companies  which  do  considerable  business.  All  of  them  are 
owned  by  private  individuals.  (See  Newspapers.) 

The  number  of  Messages  annually  transmitted  by  the 
Western  Union  Company  has  increased  from  5,879,282  in  1867 
to  59,148,343  in  1891  ;  the  number  of  offices  receiving  and  send- 
ing messages,  from  2,565  to  20,098  ;  the  number  of  miles  of  wire 
operated,  from  85,291  to  715,591  ;  the  number  of  miles  of  poles 
and  cables,  from  46,270  to  187,981 ;  the  receipts,  from 
$6.568,925.36  to  $23,034,326.59  ;  the  expenses  from  $3,944,005.63 
to  $16,428,741.84;  the  profits,  from  $2,624,919.73  to  $6,605,584.- 
,75.  Exclusive  of  the  private  leased  wires,  the  Western  Union 
Company,  in  1891,  transmitted  524,502,952  words. 

The  average  toll  per  message  in  1868  was,  in  cents,  104.7  ;  in 
1891  it  was  32.5.  The  average  cost  per  message  to  the  company 
in  1868  was  63.4  ;  in  1891  it  was  23.2. 

Tolls  to  Foreign  Lands. —  The  first  Atlantic  Cable  was 
laid  in  1857,  from  Valentia  Bay,  Ireland,  to  Heart's  Content,  New- 
foundland. In  telegrams  to  foreign  lands,  the  length  of  a  word 


156  INVENTIONS. 

is  limited  to  ten  letters.  To  England,  France,  Germany,  Ireland, 
and  Scotland,  the  rate  is  twenty-five  cents  a  word  (from  New 
York);  to  Russia  in  Europe,  forty-three  cents;  to  Spain,  thirty- 
nine  cents  ;  to  Italy,  thirty-four  cents  ;  to  Sweden,  thirty-nine 
cents  ;  to  Norway,  thirty-five  cents.  To  Melbourne,  the  rate  is 
$2.54  a  word;  to  New  South  Wales,  $2.58;  to  New  Zealand, 
$2.82 ;  to  Canton,  $2.09 ;  to  Hong  Kong  $1.99 ;  to  Victoria 
(Australia)  $2.54;  to  Rio  de  Janeiro,  $1.89;  to  Lima  (Peru), 
$1.72;  to  Argentine  Republic,  $1.82.  The  most  expensive  rate 
is  that  to  Demerara,  which  is  $3.15  a  word. 

Telephone,  The.  —  The  principle  of  the  telephone,  that 
sounds  may  be  conveyed  to  a  distance  by  a  distended  wire,  was 
demonstrated  by  Robert  Hook  in  1667,  but  no  practical  applica- 
tion was  made  of  the  discovery  until  1821,  when  Professor 
Wheatstone  exhibited  his  "  Enchanted  Lyre,"  in  which  the 
sounds  of  a  music  box  were  conveyed  from  a  cellar  to  upper 
rooms.  The  first  true  discoverer  of  the  speaking  telephone,  how- 
ever, was  Johann  Philipp  Reis,  a  German  scientist  and  professor 
in  the  institute  of  Friedrichsdorf.  April  25,  1861,  Reis  exhibited 
his  telephone  at  Frankfort.  This  contained  all  the  essential 
features  of  the  modern  telephone,  but  as  its  commercial  value 
was  not  at  all  comprehended,  little  attention  was  paid  to  it.  Reis, 
'after  trying  in  vain  to  arouse  the  interest  of  scientists  in  his 
discovery,  died  in  1874,  without  having  reaped  any  advantage 
from  it.  Meanwhile,  the  idea  was  being  worked  into  more  prac- 
tical shape  by  other  persons,  Professor  Elisha  Gray,  Professor 
A.  G.  Bell,  Professor  Dolbear,  of  Tufts  College,  near  Boston, 
Mass.,  and  later  by  Mr.  Edison.  Professor  Gray's  successful 
experiments  considerably  antedated  those  of  the  others,  but  Pro- 
fessor Bell  was  the  first  to  perfect  his  patent.  February  12, 1877, 
Bell's  articulating  telephone  was  tested  by  experiments  at  Boston 
and  Salem,  Mass.,  and  was  found  to  convey  sounds  distinctly 
from  one  place  to  the  other,  a  distance  of  eighteen  miles.  This 
telephone  was  exhibited  widely  in  this  country  and  in  Europe 
during  that  year,  and  telephone  companies  were  established  to 
bring  it  into  general  use.  Edison's  carbon  "  loud  speaking  "  tele- 
phone was  brought  out  in  1878.  The  Examiner  of  Patents  at 
Washington  on  July  21,  1883,  decided  that  Professor  Bell  was 
the  first  inventor,  because  he  was  the  first  to  complete  his  inven- 
tion and  secure  a  full  patent.  A  long  litigation  ensued,  the 
chief  opponent  of  the  Bell  patent  being  Drawbaugh,  who  claimed 
priority  of  invention.  In  1891,  after  many  years  of  controversy, 
the  United  States  Supreme  Court  decided  in  favor  of  Bell. 

The  number  of  Telephone  Exchanges  in  1891,  was  774, 
with  467  branch  offices;  miles  of  wire  on  poles,  171,498;  on 


IXVENTIONS. 


157 


buildings,  13,445;  underground,  54,690;  submarine,  779 ;  total, 
240,412.  The  total  number  of  circuits  was  240,412  ;  total  sub- 
scribers, 202,931;  total  instruments  in  use,  483,790;  average 
number  of  connections  in  a  day,  1,438,294;  in  a  year  over  450,- 
000,000.  The  average  number  of  calls  daily  from  subscribers 
was  7.10.  The  amount  received  in  rentals  in  1890  was  $2,913,369. 
The  Bell  companies  represent  $80,000,000  of  capital. 

Phonograph,  The. —  The  phonograph  was  invented  by  Mr. 
Edison  in  1877,  and  brought  before  the  public  early  in  the  fol- 
lowing year.  The  inventor  believed  that  the  numerous  practical 
applications  of  this  machine  would  commend  it  very  largely  to 
general  use.  This  has  not  thus  far  proved  to  be  the  case,  not 
because  the  instrument  itself  is  lacking,  for  added  experiment 
only  proves  its  more  remarkable  possibilities,  but  probably  because 
the  invention  is  so  wholly  new  and  strange,  so  at  variance  with 
anything  pre- 
viously known 
and  under- 
stood, that 
men  have  not 
yet  been  able 
to  comprehend 
its  application 
to  every-day 
affairs.  It  is 
growing  in  use, 
however,  and 
many  business 

men  whose  time  is  precious  use  the  machine  instead  of  a  stenog- 
rapher in  the  dictation  of  their  letters.  They  talk  into  the 
phonograph  as  fast  as  they  like.  The  stenographer  takes  the  dic- 
tation from  the  phonograph  to  the  note-book,  and  then  tran- 
scribes it.  Although  expert  stenographers  can  "  take  "  upwards 
of  sixty  to  seventy  words  a  minute,  they  cannot  compete  with 
the  phonograph.  The  Operation  of  the  phonograph  depends 
upon  the  principle  that  sound  is  produced  by  vibrations  of  the 
air.  In  the  phonograph  the  sound  of  the  spoken  words  is  re- 
ceived on  a  metal  plate,  turning  on  a  cyclinder,  upon  whose 
surface  is  a  spiral  groove  having  hundreds  of  fine  teeth.  The 
vibrations  of  the  metal  plate  are  registered  on  a  piece  of  tin  foil 
in  contact  with  the  spiral  groove,  and  are  thence  carried  to  a 
resonator  which  causes  the  vibrations  to  be  easily  communicated 
to  the  ear.  The  person  using  the  phonograph,  therefore,  hears 
the  registered  vibrations  of  the  words  of  the  speaker. 

Sewing-Machine,    The. — Foreign    experimenters    with 


EDISON    SPEAKING     PHONOGRAPH. 


158 


INVENTIONS. 


sewing-ma«hines  met  with  results  similar  to  those  of  foreign 
experimenters  in  telegraphy,  —  they  produced  nothing  that  was 
practical.  Various  Americans  tried  to  perfect  such  a  machine, 
among  them,  the  Rev.  John  Adams  Hunt,  of  Monkton,  Vt.,  in 
1818,  and  in  1832,  Walter  Hunt,  in  New  York  City.  In  1846, 
Elias  Howe,  of  Cambridge,  Mass.,  maie  a  machine,  which  had 
many  defects,  but  which  had  what  all  others  lacked  —  the  ability 
to  do  practical  work.  Howe  embodied  the  good  features  of  the 
early  machines  in  his,  and  patented  his  invention  ;  besides,  he 


THE    FIRST    SEWING-MACHINE    AND    ITS    INVENTOR,     ELIAS    HOWE. 

bought  up  other  patents,  using  them  to  perfect  his  machine,  and 
thereby  laid  the  foundation  of  a  large  fortune. 

Other  pioneers  in  the  improvement  of  sewing-machines  were 
John  Bradshaw,  of  Lowell  (1848),  Allen  B.  Wilson,  of  Pittsfield, 
Mass". '(1850),  and  William  O.  Grover,  of  Boston  (1851),  all  of 
whom  contributed  valuable  ideas.  Isaac  M.  Singer  about  this 
time  controlled  several  patents,  from  which  he  made  the  first 
machine  that  proved  satisfactory  to  manufacturers.  Singer  be- 
came immensely  rich. 


IOWA. 


159 


Cotton  Gin. —  The  invention  of  the  cotton  gin  by  Eli 
Whitney  in  17 93 'revolutionized  the  cotton  production  and  cotton 
manufacturing  industries  of  the  world.  It  not  only  made  cotton 
production  more  profitable,  because  more  cheap,  but  it  made 
possible  extensive  crops,  and  thereby  gave  the  manufacturer  more 
raw  material.  The  invention  led  to  the  rapid  development  of 
improved  cotton  spinning  and  weaving  machines.  Previously, 
lint  cotton  had  been  separated  from  the  seed  by  "  roller  gins," 
which  was  a  slow  and  an  expensive  process.  The  new  gin  sepa- 
rated the  lint  from  the  seed  not  only  more  quickly  and  cheaply, 
but  at  the  same  time  it  increased  the  quantity  of  lint.  The  pods 
in  which  cotton  grows  burst  open  when  ripe,  and  are  about  as 
large  as  an  apple.  The  pods  hold  the  cotton  wool  so  firmly  that 
it  cannot  be  picked  easily.  The  seeds,  too,  if  taken  out  by  hand, 
are  so  entangled  in  the  cotton  that  it  used  to  take  a  man  a  day  to 
produce  a  pound  of  clean  cotton.  Whitney's  machine  cleaned 
three  hundred  pounds  of  cotton  as  quickly  as  a  man  by  hand 
could  clean  one  pound. 

Iowa.  —  This  State  originally  belonged  to  Louisiana,  at  the 
time  it  was  bought  from  France.  The 
first  white  settlers  were  people  from 
New  England,  who  founded  the  vil- 
lage of  Dubuque  in  1833.  Iowa  is 
noted  for  its  prairies,  which  are  ex- 
tremely fertile.  More  than  half  the 
inhabitants  are  farmers,  who  produce 
more  than  $365,000,000  of  various 
crops  yearly. 

The  Corn  Crop  has  exceeded 
322,000,000  bushels  in  a  year;  the 
wheat  crop,  37,000,000 ;  oats,  80,- 
000,000;  rye,  2,000,000;  barley,  5,- 
000,000;  potatoes,  20,000,000.  This 
is  the  first  corn  producing  State,  its  achievements  in  this  cereal 
having  been  commemorated  in  the  great  Corn  Palace  at  Sioux 
City,  an  immense  structure  which  is  built  yearly  entirely  of  corn. 
The  corn  canning  industry  produces  7,000,000  cans  of  corn 
yearly.  The  product  of  hay,  in  a  year,  has  exceeded  7,000,000 
tons,  worth  $33,500,000. 

The  State  raises  over  4,000,000  head  of  swine,  worth   $28,- 

000,000,  and  in  this  industry  ranks  first.     It  has  1,200,000  milch 

cows,  and   2,100,000    other   cattle,  thousands   of   them  blooded 

stock,  the  whole  valued  at  $80,000,000. 

In  the  Raising  of  Horses  it  stands  third,  having  over  1,000,- 


GREAT    SEAL    OF    IOWA. 


160 


IOWA. 


000  head,  worth  over  $7,000,000.  The  sheep  industry  has  fallen 
away  in  recent  years  to  270,000  head.  It  is  the  second  State  in 
the  production  of  butter,  and  the  fourth  in  cheese. 

There   are   four   hundred    Coal    Mines,  and   20,000  square 


miles    of    bituminous 
3,500,000  to  4,000,000 
stone,       limestone, 
ter's     clay    are 
tares  of  Iowa 
year ;      it 
s  a  w  - 


coal  deposits.     The  output  is   from 
tons  a  year.     Lead,  zinc,  iron,  sand- 
marble,   lime,   gypsum,  and  pot- 
also  produced.     The  manufac- 
are    worth    $70,000,000    a 
has  extensive  flour  mills, 
mills,   meat-packing    es- 
tablishments, and  va- 
rious   other  manu- 
facturing indus- 
tries. 

The  Popula- 
tion   in    1880    was 
1,624,615;  in  1890,  1,- 
911,896.     The  real    prop- 
erty  was  valued   at    $361,- 
000,000  ;  the  .personal  prop- 
'erty    at    $140,000,000.      The 
acreage    of   farm    lands    was 
$25,055,163,  valued  at  $567,- 
430,227  ;  the  farm  products  were 
worth    $136,103,473.      In    1890 
there    were  8,365  miles   of   rail- 
road ;    the    school    attendance    was 
304,856;    the   newspapers    in    1892 
numbered  878. 

The  capital  of  Iowa,  Des  Moines, 
is  a  leading  railroad  and  manufactur- 
ing centre.  Among  its  products  are 
wire  fences,  carriages,  pork,  cotton  and 
woollen  goods.  The  population  in  1890 
was  50,093.  Sioux  City  is  a  great 
packing  centre  ;  the  value  of  its  yearly 
VZEW  OF  COUNCIL  BLUFFS,  IOWA,  product  is  $30,000,000.  The  popula- 
tion  in  1890  was  37,806.  The  third 

city  is  Dubuque,  situated  on  the  Mississippi  River  on  a  plateau. 
It  is  the  terminus  for  five  railroads,  does  a  business  aggregating 
$40,000,000  a  year  and  is  a  grain,  lumber,  and  meat-packing 
centre;  the  population  in  1890  was  30,311.  Horace  Boies 
(Democratic)  is  Governor  of  Iowa.  His  term  expires  January 
1,  1894.  The  State  is  Republican. 


JOHX    BROWNS    RAID. 


161 


Irrepressible  Conflict.  —  William  H.  Seward,  of  New  York, 
in  a  speech  in  1858  spoke  of  the  conflict  between  freedom  and 
slavery  as  "  an  irrepressible  conflict  between  opposing  and  endur- 
ing forces." 

Jack  the  Giant  Killer.  (See  Nicknames  of  Famous  Ameri- 
cans.) 

Jefferson  Simplicity.     (See  Slang  of  Politics.) 

Jingoism.      (See  Slang  of  Politics.) 

John  Brown's  Raid. —  In  1859,  John  Brown,  who  had  pre- 
viously been  an  active  participant  and  leader  in  the  Civil  War  in 
Kansas  growing  out  of  the  proposition  to  make  that  State  a  Free 
State,  arrived  in  Maryland,  near  Harper's  Ferry.  With  a  num- 
ber of  companions,  he  began  the  smuggling  of  men  and  arms 
into  a  house  which  he 
hired,  his  purpose  be- 
ing the  organization  of 
an  expedition  to  seize 
the  national  arsenal  at 
the  ferry,  where  there 
were  100,000  stand  of 
arms,  and  with  them 
to  arm  and  free  the 


JOHN   BROWN'S   FORT. 


negroes  of  the 
round  ing  country, 
whom  he  expected 
would  rally  around 
him.  He  would  then  take  to  the  mountain's,  whence  he  hoped  to 
put  into  operation  a  plan  for  the  wholesale  freeing  of  slaves,  de- 
fending his  force  at  any  hazard.  On  the  evening  of  October  17, 
with  twenty-two  men,  he  seized  the  arsenal,  cut  the  telegraph 
wires,  stopped  passenger  trains,  and  took  sixty  prisoners.  The 
negroes  did  not  rally  to  his  side  as  he  had  expected  they  would, 
and  he  was  soon  surrounded  by  troops  of  the  State  militia,  who 
outnumbered  him  many  times.  Brown  made  a  stout  resistance, 
but  finally  was  captured,  being  wounded  severely.  On  his  trial, 
ho  was  found  guilty,  and  condemned  to  death,  and  was  hanged 
on  December  2.  The  incident  made  a  national  sensation,  and 
helped  to  inflame  the  already  bitter  feeling  between  the  North 
and  the  South.  In  Kansas,  John  Brown  had  distinguished  him- 
self for  his  defence  of  Ossawatomie  against  an  armed  force  many 
times  as  large  as  his  own  ;  the  Governor  of  Missouri,  where  he 
freed  many  slaves,  offered  a  reward  of  three  thousand  dollars  for 
his  arrest.  Brown  belonged  to  no  political  party  ;  if  he  had  any 
political  creed,  it  was  the  freedom  of  the  slave. 


162  KANSAS. 

Johnnies,  The,  and  Johnny  Eeb.— The  names  used  by  Union 
soldiers  during  the  Rebellion  when  speaking  of  the  Confederates. 
Judge  Lynch. —  Derived  from  John  Lynch,  a  North  Carolin- 
ian who,  failing  to  secure  protection  from  the  authorities,  took  the 
law  into  his  own  hands  ;  hence,  lynch  law,  which  is  the  punish- 
ment of  criminals  by  other  than  legal  authorities. 

The  number  of  lynchings  reported  in  1891  was  195,  distributed 
among  the  States  as  follows :  Alabama,  twenty-six ;  Arkansas, 
twelve  ;  California,  one  ;  Colorado,  two  ;  Florida,  ten  ;  Georgia, 
twelve  ;  Illinois,  one  ;  Indiana,  three  ;  Kentucky,  eleven  ;  Louisi- 
ana, twenty-nine  ;  Maryland,  one  ;  Michigan,  two  ;  Mississippi, 
twenty-three  ;  Missouri,  two  ;  Montana,  five  ;  Nebraska,  two ; 
North  Carolina,  two;  Ohio,  one  ;  Oregon,  one;  South  Carolina, 
one  ;  South  Dakota,  three ;  Tennessee,  thirteen  ;  Texas,  sixteen  ; 
Virginia,  five  ;  West  Virginia,  two  ;  Wisconsin,  one  ;  Washington, 
three;  Wyoming,  one  ;  Indian  Territory,  two.  There  were  121 
negroes,  sixty-nine  whites,  two  Indians,  two  Chinese,  and  one 
Mexican.  Six  of  the  175  were  women.  These  figures  are  taken 
from  a  compilation  in  the  Chicago  Tribune. 

Judiciary,  The.     (See  Federal  Government.) 
Junket.     (See  Slang  of  Politics.) 

Kansas.  —  Kansas  was  part  of  the  Louisiana  purchase  ;  it  was 
settled  at  Fort  Leaven  worth  in  1840. 
It  was  part  of  Missouri  Territory  until 
1821,  and  then  remained  unorganized 
until  in  1854  the  Territory  of  Kansas 
was  erected,  including  part  of  what 
is  now  the  State  of  Colorado.  The 
attempt  to  make  Kansas  a  Slave-State 
resulted  in  a  Civil  War,  lasting  sev- 
eral years;  towns  were  sacked,  hun- 
dreds of  men  were  killed  in  battle  or 
assassinated,  and  "  Bleeding  Kansas  " 
attracted  the  attention  of  the  world. 
GREAT  SEAL  OF  KANSAS.  It  was  admitted  to  the  Union  in  1861. 

It  is  an   important  Agricultural 

State,  raising  extensive  crops  of  corn,  wheat,  oats,  potatoes, 
hay,  rye,  tobacco,  buckwheat,  and  sorghum.  Lately  the  raising 
of  beets  for  sugar  has  become  an  important  industry.  Forty 
million  acres  of  Kansas  soil  are  in  grass,  supporting  an  enormous 
number  of  domestic  animals,  including  750,000  horses,  bred  up 
with  fine  Clydesdale,  and  Percheron,  Norman  and  Kentucky 
stallions;  100,000  mules,  highly  valued  in  farming  operations; 
800,000  milch-cows,  improved  by  admixtures  of  Hereford  and 


KANSAS-NEBRASKA    BILL.  163 

Galloway,  Holstein  and  Jersey  stock ;  and  2,000,000  other 
cattle. 

The  Live  Stock  of  Kansas  is  valued  at  $150,000,000.  There 
are  great  stock  yards  and  packing  houses  at  Kansas  City,  Kan., 
across  the  river  from  Kansas  Citv,  Mo.  During  1890,  1,472,229 
cattle,  76,568  calves,  2,865,171  hogs,  535,869  sheep,  and  37,11s 
horses  and  mules,  in  108,100  curs,  were  received  at  these  stock 
yards,  and  of  these  animals  over  3,000,000  were  slaughtered, 
1,600,000  sold  to  shippers,  and  320,000  sold  to  feeders.  The 
zinc  and  lead  mines  of  the  State  yield  in  a  year  $800,000. 

The  population  in  1870  was  364,999;  in  1880,  996,096;  in 
1890,  1,427,096.  The  real  property  was  valued  at  $244,000,000 ; 
personal  property  at  $109,000,000.  The  manufactures  aggregated 
$30,790,000 ;  the  farm  products  were  valued  at  $52,000,000 ;  the 
farm  lands  at  $255,000,000.  The  daily  school  attendance  was 
244,697.  There  are  8,866  miles  of  railroad  in  1890,  and  in  1892, 
765  newspapers. 

The  leading  educational  institutions  are  the  University  of  Kan- 
sas, at  Lawrence,  the  State  Normal  School,  at  Emporia,  and  the 
Agricultural  College  at  Manhattan,  besides  which  there  are 
numerous  smaller  institutions.  The  United  States  institutions  in 
Kansas  are  Fort  Leavenworth,  the  headquarters  of  the  De- 
partment of  the  Missouri,  the  United  States  Infantry  and  Cavalry 
School,  and  the  United  States  Military  Prison,  both  at  the  same 
place,  and  the  Soldiers'  Home  near  by,  besides  Fort  Riley. 

Kansas  City,  the  first  city,  is  separated  from  Kansas  City, 
Mo.,  by  the  Mississippi  River.  On  the  Kansas  side  the  popula- 
tion is  38,316.  Topeka,  the  second  city  and  the  capital  (popula- 
tion 31,007),  is  a  railway  and  supply  centre.  Wichita  (population 
23,853)  is  the  third  city.  Leavenworth  has  a  population  of 
19,768,  and  is  a  busy  manufacturing  and  shipping  point.  The 
Governor  of  Kansas  is  Lyman  U.  Humphrey  (Republican),  whose 
terni'expires  Jan.  9,  1893.  The  State  is  Republican. 

Kansas-Nebraska  Bill. —  The  Thirty-Third  Congress  opened 
December  5,  1853.  On  December  14,  a  bill  was  introduced  into 
the  Senate  to  establish  a  Territorial  government  for  Nebraska, 
which  was  referred  to  the  Committee  on  Territories,  of  which 
Stephen  A.  Douglas  was  chairman.  Mr.  Douglas  promptly 
reported  the  bill  on  the  following  day  with  certain  amendments. 
The  true  intent  of  the  amendments,  as  to  whether  they  had 
annulled  former  compromises  or  not,  was  not  understood  by  the 
Senate ;  and  a  special  report  was  made  to  the  Senate  on  January 
4,  1854,  further  amending  the  original  bill  in  such  language  as 
could  leave  no  doubt  that  its  construction  meant  the  supersed- 
ure  of  the  Missouri  Compromise  (which  see). 


164 


KAXSAS-XKBRASKA    BILL. 


The  late  Compromise  of  1850  had  rested  on  it  as  a  basis 
by  which  other  contingent  issues  had  been  settled ;  and  this 
sudden  blow  aimed  at  the  foundation  of  the  compromise  fabric 
created  a  sensation  deep  and  wide  throughout  the  North,  Mr. 
Douglas  defended  the  billon  the  ground  that  in  1848  a  bill 
brought  before  Congress  for  the  extension  of  the  Missouri  Com- 
promise line  to  the  Pacific  ocean  had  been  defeated,  and  that  this 
defeat  had  made  it  necessary  to  effect  the  Compromise  of  1850  to 
supersede  it.  He  further  stated  that  the  object  of  the  bill  was  to 
leave  the  settlement  of  the  slavery  question  to  the  inhabitants  of 
the  Territory.  This  was  the  principle  of  what  was  termed 
"  Squatter^Sovereignty  "  (which  see). 

In  reply  to  Mr.   Douglas,  Salmon    P.   Chase    denied   that  the 


KANSAS    STATE    CAPITOLS,     FIRST    AND     LAST. 

Compromise  of  1850  had  superseded  the  Missouri  Compromise, 
and  to  substantiate  his  premise,  quoted  the  language  of  Mr. 
Atchison,  Senator  from  Missouri,  who  on  that  occasion,  had 
declared  that  "  though  a  grave  error,  the  Missouri  Compromise 
could  not  be  repealed."  The  debate  began  early  in  December, 
1853,  and  terminated  with  its  passage  May  125,  1854,  modified  to 
include  Kansas,  and  clearly  superseding  the  Missouri  Compromise. 
Up  to  this  time  the  Whigs  had  held  intact  their  organization  ; 
but  the  Southern  Whigs  had  largely  deserted  them  in  the  contest 
over  this  bill.  The  Free  Soilers  (see  Political  Parties)  were  an 
acknowledged  power  in  the  North,  not  to  be  despised;  and  the 
problem  now  was  to  find  a  political  nucleus  around  which  to 
gather  in  opposition  to  the  Democratic  party,  by  whose  quasi 


KANSAS-XEBRASKA    BILL. 


165 


IQQ  KENTUCKY. 

alliance  the  South  had  managed  to  divide  the  political  forces  of 
the  North  and  conquer  them  in  detail.     This  condition  of  affairs 
led  to  the  birth  of  the  Republican  party.     (See  Political  Parties.) 
Kentucky.— Kentucky  was  settled  at  Harrodsburg  in  1774, 
bj   Virginians.     It   was    originally    a 
part  of  Virginia;  in  1790 it  became  a 
separate    Territory.     At   the   time  of 
the   secession  movement,   although   a 
large    slave-holding    State,  the    State 
did  not  secede.     Of  her  citi/ens,  over 
90,000    fought  under   the   Stars    and 
Stripes,  and  40,000  under  the   Stars 
and  Bars.     Kentucky  has  large  rivers, 
famous  mineral  springs,  and  it  grows 
extensive    crops    of    hemp,    tobacco, 
corn,  and  wheat. 
GREAT  SEAL  OF  KENTUCKY.          It  produces   annually   about   280,- 
000,000  pounds  of  Tobacco,  which 

represents  nearly  two  thirds  of  the  American  crop.  The  taxes 
to  the  government  since  1862,  from  its  manufacture  of  chewing 
and  smoking  tobacco,  cigars  and  cigarettes  amounted  to  $840,- 
000,000.  Louisville  is  the  largest  tobacco  market  in  the  world. 

The  State  is  celebrated  for  the  Blue  Grass  Region,  which 
covers  10,000  square  miles,  has  a  very  rich  black  soil  and  great 
landscape  beauty.  The  population  in  1880  was  1,648,690;  in 
1890,  1,855,436.'  The  State  debt  was  $1,449,000,000.  It  had 
1^,746  miles  of  railroad,  in  1892,  319,000  school  children  and  280 
newspapers. 

Louisville,  the  chief  city,  with  a  population  in  1890  of  161,- 
005,  is  on  the  Ohio  River,  and  has  an  extensive  railroad  and 
steamboat  navigation.'  Her  manufactures  aggregate  $60,000,000 
in  a  year.  The  Custom  House,  the  Baptist  Theological  Seminary, 
the  Court  House,  the  City  Hall,  the  Cave-Hill  Cemetery,  and  the 
public  institutions  are  among  the  prominent  features  of  the  city. 
Covington,  the  second  city  (population  37,375),  is  opposite  Cin- 
cinnati, and  has  large  factories.  Frankfort,  the  capital  (population 
9,000),  is  the  site  of  the  grave  of  Daniel  Boone.  Lexington 
(population  22,355)  is  the  metropolis  of  the  Blue  Grass  country, 
has  large  live-stock  and  commercial  interests.  Kentucky  Univer- 
sity and  the  State  Agricultural  College  are  situated  here.  John 
Young  Brown  (Democrat)  is  Governor  of  Kentucky.  His  term 
expires  January  1,  1896.  The  State  is  Democratic. 
Kicker.  (See  Slang  of  Politics.) 
Kid-Glove  Politicians.  (See  Slang  of  Politics.) 


LEGAL    HOLIDAYS    IX    THE    UNITED    STATES. 


167 


Kindergarten  Politics.     (See  Slang  of  Politics.) 

King  Cotton.  This  allusion  to  the  importance  of  cotton 
originated  a  short  time  previous  to  the  Civil  War.  The  South 
claimed  that  the  North  would  not  go  to  war  with  the  South  for 
the  reason  that  it  could  not  get  along  without  the  South's  cotton ; 
"  cotton  was  king,"  so  asserted  the  Southerners.  The  saying 
gave  rise  to  various  rhymes. 

King  Martin  the  First.  (See  Presidents  of  the  United 
States.) 

Knifing.      (See  Slang  of  Politics.) 

Knights  of  Honor.     (See  Secret  Societies.) 

Knights  Templars.     (See  Secret  Societies.) 

Know  Nothings.     (See  Political  Parties.; 

Ku  Klux  Klail.     (See  Political  Parties.) 

Land  Grants,  Railroad.     (See  Railroads  and  Bridges.) 

Landslide.     (See  Slang  of  Politics.) 

Last  Cocked  Hat.     (See  Presidents  of  the  United  States.) 

Law  Partner  Miller.    (See  Nicknames  of  Famous  Americans.) 

Legal  Holidays  in  the  United  States. —  Not  all  of   the 

States  have  the  same  legal  holidays.  Six  recognized  legal  holi- 
days are  set  apart  in  all  the  States,  but  many  States  have  special 
holidays  in  commemoration  of  some  event  of  particular  interest 
to  its  people.  Following  is  a  list  of  the  holidays  celebrated  in 
the  States  and  Territories  :  — 


January  1.     NEW  YEAR'S  DAY: 

In  all  the  States  except  Delaware, 
Massachusetts,  New  Hampshire, 
and  Rhode  Island. 

January  8.  ANNIVERSARY  OF 
THE  BATTLE  OF  NEW  ORLEANS  : 
In  Louisiana. 

January  19.  LEE'S  BIRTHDAY  : 
In  Georgia  and  Virginia, 

February  12.  LINCOLN'S  BIRTH- 
DAY: In  Illinois. 

February  22.  WASHINGTON'S 
BIHTHDAY:  In  all  the  States  ex- 
cept Arkansas,  Delaware,  Iowa, 
Mississippi,  and  Vermont. 

March  1, 1892.  M ARDI-GRAS  :  in 
Alabama  and  Louisiana. 

March  2.  ANNIVERSARY  OF 
TEXAN  INDEPENDENCE  :  in  Texas. 

March  4.  FIREMEN'S  ANNIVER- 
SARY :  In  New  Orleans,  La. 

April  6,  1892.  STATE  ELECTION 
DAY  :  In  Rhode  Island. 


April  15,  1892.  GOOD  FRIDAY: 
In  Alabama,  Louisiana,  Maryland, 
Pennsylvania,  and  Tennessee. 

April  21.  ANNIVERSARY  OF  THE 
BATTLE  OF  SAN  JACINTO:  In 
Texas. 

April  26.  MEMORIAL  DAY:  In 
Alabama  and  Georgia. 

May  10.  MEMORIAL  DAY:  In 
North  Carolina. 

May  20.  ANNIVERSARY  OF  THE 
SIGNING  OF  THE  MECKLENBURG 
DECLARATION  OF  INDEPENDENCE  : 
In  North  Carolina. 

May  30.  DECORATION  DAY:  In 
Arizona,  California,  Colorado,  Con- 
necticut, Iowa,  Illinois,  Indiana, 
Kansas,  Maine,  Massachusetts, 
Michigan,  Minnesota,  Montana, 
Nebraska,  Nevada,  New  Hamp- 
shire, New  Jersey,  New  York, 
North  Dakota,  Ohio,  Oklahoma, 
Oregon,  Pennsylvania,  Rhode 


168 


LIFE-SAVING    STATIONS. 


Island,  Tennessee,  Utah,  Vermont, 
Wisconsin,  Washington,  and  Wy- 
oming. 

June  3.  JEFFEKSON  DAVIS'S 
BIRTHDAY:  In  Florida. 

June  17.  BUNKER  HILL  DAY. 
In  Boston  and  suburbs. 

July  4.  INDEPENDENCE  DAY: 
In  all  the  States. 

July  24.  PIONEERS'  DAY:  In 
Utah. 

September  5,  1892.  LABOR  DAY: 
In  Colorado,  Connecticut,  Illinois, 
Indiana,  Iowa,  Kansas,  Maine, 
Massachusetts,  Montana,  Nebraska, 
New  Hampshire,  New  Jersey,  New 
York,  Ohio,  Pennsylvania,  South 
Dakota,  and  Washington. 

October  31.  ADMISSION  IN  THE 
UNION  DAY:  Nevada. 

November — .GENERAL  ELECTION 
DAY:  In  Arizona,  California, 
Florida,  Idaho,  Indiana,  Kansas, 
Maryland,  Missouri,  Montana, 
Nevada,  New  Hampshire,  New 
Jersey,  New  York,  North  Dakota, 
Ohio,  Oregon,  South  Carolina, 
South  Dakota,  Tennessee,  Texas, 
Washington, Wisconsin,and  Wyom- 
ing. In  the  States  which  hold 
elections  in  November,  1892,  elec- 
tion day  falls  on  the  8th  instant. 

November  24,  1892.  THANKS- 
GIVING DAY:  Is  observed  in  all 


the  States,  though  in  some  it  is 
not  a  statutory  holiday. 

December  25.  CHRISTMAS  DAY: 
In  all  the  States,  and  in  South 
Carolina  the  two  succeeding  days 
in  addition. 

Sundays  and  Fast  Days  (when- 
ever appointed)  are  legal  holidays 
in  nearly  all  the  States. 

ARBOR  DAY  is  a  legal  holiday  in 
Idaho,  Kansas,  Rhode  Island,  and 
Wyoming,  the  day  being  set  by 
the  Governor —  in  Nebraska,  April 
22;  California,  September  9;  and 
Colorado  on  the  third  Friday  in 
April. 

In  New  Mexico  there  are  no 
legal  holidays  established  by  stat- 
ute, and  in  Delaware  no  State 
holidays. 

Every' Saturday  after  12  o'clock 
noon  is  a  legal  holiday  in  New  York 
and  New  Jersey,  and  from  June 
15  to  September  15  in  Pennsyl- 
vania. 

June  1, 1865,  was  appointed  by 
President  Johnson  a  "  day  of 
humiliation  and  mourning  "  on  ac- 
count of  Lincoln's  assassination. 
September  26,  1881,  when  Garfleld 
was  buried,  was  appointed  by 
President  Arthur  to  be  observed 
throughout  the  Union  as  "  a  day 
of  humiliation  and  mourning." 


Legislative,  The.     (See  Federal  Government.) 
Let   No   Guilty    Man    Escape.       (See    Sayings    of    Famous 
Americans.) 

Liberal  Republican.      (See  Political  Parties.) 

Liberty  and  Union,  Now  and  Forever,  One  and  Insepar- 
able. (See  Sayings  of  Famous  Americans.) 

Liberty  Party.     (See  Political  Parties.) 

Life-Saving  Service,  The.  —  One  of  the  most  valuable  and 
energetic  branches  of  the  government  is  the  Life-Saving  Service, 
whose  members  patrol  the  coasts  of  both  oceans  and  of  the 
Great  Lakes,  and  keep  watchful  lookout  for  vessels  in  distress, 
and  for  the  protection  of  property.  One  of  the  features  of  this 
service  has  been  the  introduction  of  life-saving  appliances,  for  use 
in  carrying  passengers  ashore  from  vessels  which  are  wrecked  or 
going  to  pieces.  Among  these  are  guns  for  hurling  a  line  from 
the  shore  to  the  ship  in  distress,  a  "breeches-buoy,"  an  ingenious 


LIGHT-HOUSES. 


169 


contrivance  for  hauling  a  man  ashore  on  a  line,  and  a  life-car, 
swung  on  a  line  from  the  ship  to  the  shore,  in  which  two  persons 
may  be  accommodated.  The  crews  are  trained  in  the  mysteries 
of  launching  a  life-boat  when  the  breakers  are  running  high,  of 
righting  the  boat  in  case  it  is  capsized,  of  rescuing  drowning  per- 
sons, and  of  resuscitating  them  when  they  are  brought  ashore,  as 
many  are,  insensible.  The  stations  are  provided  with  medical 
stores  and  provisions  for  use  in  case  of  emergency.  The  records 
of  the  service  show  many  heroic  deeds  performed  in  the  effort  to 
save  human  life,  or  to  rescue  valuable  ships  from  disaster. 

In   1891   there  were  238  Life-Saving  Stations,  of  which 
178  were  on  the  Atlantic  Coast,  forty- 
eight  on  the  Great  Lakes,  eleven  on  the 
Pacific   Coast,   and   one   on    the    Ohio 
River  near  Louisville,  Ky.     The  system 
was  introduced  in  1871,  and  in  that  time 
there     had      been 
5,783    disasters  in 
which     the     Life- 
Saving     Ser  vice 
rendered     aid. 
The   value  of  the 
property   of  these 
vessels  aggregated 
$96,000,000;    the 
value  of  the  prop- 
erty  saved  aggre- 
gated $7 1,000,000 ; 
the   value   of    the 
property   lost    ag- 
gregated $24,000,- 
000  ;  the    number 
of    people  on    the 
vessels  which  thus 
came    to     disaster 
was      49,530,      of 
whom     592    were 
lost.     The  cost  of 
maintaining       this 
valuable      service, 

r  •     i       •  j  POBTSMOUTH.     N.     H.   LIGHT-HOUSE. 

which  is  a  depai  t- 

ment  of  the  Treasury  Department,  is  about  $1,000,000  a  year. 

Light-Houses.  —  The  light-houses  of  the  country  are  under 
the  supervision  of  the  Light- House  Board,  which  is  a  subordinate 


170  LIQUORS    AXD    TOBACCO. 

department  of  the  United  States  Treasury.  Its  officers  are 
engineers  of  the  navy  and  its  chairman  is  always  a  commodore. 
The  Light-House  Board  has  charge  not  only  of  the  light-houses 
and  beacons,  but  also  of  the  fog  signals,  buoys,  light-ships,  etc.,  in 
the  harbors  or  along  the  coast.  In  1891  there  were  1,167  light- 
houses and  beacons,  thirty-two  light-ships,  seven  lighted  buoys, 
186  fog  signals  operated  by  clockwork,  ninety-two  by  steam  or 
hot  air,  fifty-nine  whistling  buoys,  seventy-nine  bell  buoys,  and 
four  thousand  other  buoys  of  various  kinds.  On  the  rivers  of  the 
West  there  were  1,368  post-lights. 

Liquors  and  Tobacco,  Consumption  of. 

Malt  Liquors.  Cigars. 

Spirits.  Cigarettes. 

Consumption  Per  Capita. 

The  statisticians  of  the  United  States  Census  Bureau  publish 
a  tabulation  showing  the  consumption  in  the  United  States  of 
distilled  spirits,  wines,  and  malt  liquors  and  the  consumption 
thereof  per  capita  of  population.  By  the  report  for  1890  it  ap- 
peared that  the  total  consumption  of  distilled  spirits,  wines,  and 
malt  liquors  in  the  United  States  was  971,272,770  gallons,  of 
which  855,992,335  were  malt  Jiquors,  27,650,870  wines,  and  87,- 
829,562  distilled  spirits.  This  consumption  was  far  greater  than 
that  of  any  previous  year  since  the  statistics  have  been  computed, 
and  the  consumption  almost  doubled  in  the  ten  years  ending 
1890.  The  tabulation  further  showed  that  the  consumption  of 
all  wines  and  liquors  (including  malt),  per  capita  of  population, 
was  15.49  gallons,  of  which  13.65  was  malt  liquors,  1.40  distilled 
spirits,  and  .44  wines.  It  appeared  from  this  tabulation  that  the 
consumption  of  Malt  Liquors  per  Capita  of  population  has 
steadily  increased  since  1840,  when  it  was  only  1.36  gallons;  in 
1860  it  was  3.22  ;  in  1870  it  was  5.30  ;  in  1880  it  was  8.26.  On 
the  other  hand,  it  appears  that  the  consumption  of  Distilled 
Spirits  per  Capita  of  population  has  decreased  since  1840, 
when  it  was  2.52  gallons,  whereas  in  1890  it  was  only  1.40 
gallons.  The  consumption  of  wines  per  capita  of  population  has 
shown  a  very  steady  average  of  .45  gallons  since  the  statistics 
have  been  computed. 

The  total  Production  of  Beer  in  the  United  States  for  the 
year  ending  April  30,  1891,  was  30,021,079  barrels,  an  increase 
over  the  preceding  year  of  3,200,126  barrels.  The  State  which 
produced  the  largest  amount  of  beer  was  New  York,  which  pro- 
duced 9,088,109  barrels ;  Pennsylvania  was  second  with  3,118,- 
248  barrels;  Ohio  was  third  with  2,636,668;  Illinois  was 


LOUISIANA.  171 

fourth  with  2,608,916 ;  Wisconsin  was  fifth,  with  2,403,640.  The 
city  which  sold  the  largest  amount  of  beer  in  1891  was  New 
York,  which  sold  4,448,315  barrels ;  Chicago  was  second,  with 
2,034,696  bar-rels;  Milwaukee  was  third,  with  1,877,157  barrels; 
St.  Louis  was  fourth,  with  1,824,950  barrels;  Philadelphia  was 
fifth,  Brooklyn  sixth,  and  Cincinnati  seventh.  The  world's  pro- 
duction of  beer  is  estimated  at  4,485,273,549  gallons,  and  the 
consumption  per  capita  of  population  in  all  the  countries  of  the 
world  is  41.59  gallons,  being  heaviest  in  Bavaria,  where  it  is 
263.40  gallons.  In  the  consumption  per  capita  of  population  the 
United  States  stands  ninth,  Great  Britain,  Belgium,  Germany, 
Wittenberg,  Denmark,  Baden,  Alsace-Lorraine  having  pre- 
ceded it.  The  materials  used  for  the  production  of  distilled 
spirits  in  the  year  ending  June  30,  1891,  were  2,951,547  bushels 
of  malt,  18,671,536  of  corn,  4,579,868  of  rye,  2,610,918  of 
molasses,  96,166  of  wheat,  28,389  of  maltfeed,  14,637  of  oats,  662 
of  barley,  and  4,836  of  other  materials ;  total,  26,347,641  bushels. 
The  internal  revenue  taxes  collected  for  the  wines  and  liquors 
amounted  to  $107,691,504.  (See  Internal  Revenue.) 

Cigars,  Tobacco,  and  Cigarettes. — In  the  year  ending 
Dec.  31,  1890,  there  were  manufactured  in  this  country  4,228,- 
528,258  cigars,  an  increase  over  the  preceding  year  of  441,298,- 
805  ;  of  cigarettes  there  were  manufactured  2,505,167,610,  an  in- 
crease over  the  preceding  year  of  91,817,799;  the  number  of 
pounds  of  tobacco  was  91,746,311,  an  increase  of  8,232,349.  The 
internal  revenue  taxes  on  cigars  and  tobacco  in  1891  was  $703- 
709. 

Little  David.      (See  Nicknames  of  Famous  Americans.) 
Little  Giant.      (See  Nicknames  of  Famous  Americans.) 
Little  Mac.      (See  Nicknames  of  Famous  Americans.) 
Little  Magician.     (See  Presidents  of  the  United  States.) 
Little   More  Grape,    Captain  Bragg.     (See    Sayings    of 
Famous  Americans.) 

Little  Tan.      (See  Presidents  of  the  United  States.) 

Lives  Lost  by  Fire.    (See  Great  Fires.) 

LOCO  FOCOS.     (See  Political  Parties.) 

Log  Rolling.      (See  Slang  of  Politics.) 

Long  Tom.     (See  Presidents  of  the  United  States.) 

Louisiana.  — The  State  was  settled  at  Biloxi,  in  1699,  by  the 
French.  Napoleon  I.,  at  one  time,  thought  of  sending  a  French 
army  to  Louisiana  to  establish  a  New  France.  Being  unable  to 
defend  the  District,  and  fearing  its  seizure  by  England,  he  sold  it 


172  LOUISIANA. 

to  the  United   States  for  $12,000,000.     (See   Cessions  of  Terri- 
tory.)    Louisiana  promptly  seceded  from  the  Union  in  1861. 

Its  coast  is  covered  by  a  huge 
marsh,  extending  inland  thirty 
miles,  parts  of  which,  in  recent  years, 
have  been  drained  and  improved. 
One  half  of  the  State  is  covered 
with  yellow  pines,  and  the  cypress 
and  the  oak  grow  abundantly  in  the 
swamps.  The  State  has  3,872  miles 
of  inland  navigation,  the  lowlands 
being  protected  from  inundation  by 
1,150  miles  of  levees.  Only  about 
one  tenth  of  her  soil  is  under  culti- 
vation; the  agricultural  products 
GREAT  SEAL  OF  LOUISIANA.  *™  worth  $50,000,000^  year.  The 

Rice  industry  is  carried  on  on  fif- 
teen hundred  plantations,  employing  50,000  persons,  the  crop 
varying  from  60,000,000  to  120,000,000  pounds  a  year.  The 
raising  of  Sugar  utilizes  $90,000,000  in  land  and  buildings,  and 
yields  $'25,000,000  a  year.  The  crop  of  1890  was  over  330,000 
hogsheads  of  sugar  and  500,000  barrels  of  molasses.  This  large 
crop  was  due  to  the  bounty  of  one  and  three  fourths  to  two 
cents  a  pound,  granted  by  the  government  under  the  McKinley 
Tariff  Act  of  1890.  The  sugar  industry  employs  half  the  popula- 
tion of  the  State.  The  State  produces  also  corn  (15,000,000 
bushels),  oats,  and  sweet  potatoes,  besides  figs,  bananas,  peaches, 
plums,  and  other  fruits,  early  vegetables,  and  tobacco. 

The  Cotton  crop  yields  550,000  bales.  The  cotton-seed  oil 
business  requires  180,000  tons  of  seed  yearly.  The  population 
of  Louisiana  in  1880  was  939,946;  in  1890,  1,116,828;  the  net 
State  debt  was  $12,513,214;  the  real  property  was  valued  at 
.|149,000,0,/00 ;  the  personal  property  at  $64,000,000.  The  acre- 
age of  farm  lands  was  8,273,506,  valued  at  $58,989,117  ;  the  farm 
products  were  valued  at  $42,883,522;  the  school  attendance 
averaged  90,551.  The  railroad  mileage  in  1890  was  1,758,  and  in 
1-892  there  were  173  newspapers. 

The  only  large  city  of  Louisiana  is  New  Orleans,  which  had 
a  population  in  1890  of  241,995.  With  the  exception  of  Liver- 
pool, it  is  the  largest  cotton  market  in  the  world,  receiving  annu- 
ally 2,000,000  bales.  It  is  an  important  centre  for  railways  and 
steamships.  The  export  trade  in  sugar,  rice,  and  cotton  is  of 
mammoth  proportions.  A  large  trade  in  fruits  with  Central  and 
South  America,  in  wool  with  Texas  and  Mexico,  and  in  hides, 
lumber,  and  iron  is  carried  on.  The  city  has  many  quaint  and 


MAINE. 


173 


picturesque  features,  of  which  the  Cathedral  St.  Louis,  the  French 
Market,  the  Spanish  Fort,  the  Creole  quarter,  and  the  old  French 
houses  are  the  more  notable. 

The  Mississippi  River  here  empties  into  the  Gulf,  flowing 
in  a  mighty  sea,  through  the  Northeast,  South,  Southwest,  and 
other  passes,  its  tide  being  discolored  with  the  fine  aluminous  clay, 
gathered  in  its  windings  through  broad  and  turbid  alluvial  low- 
lands. This  noble  river  has  a  length  of  4,38.2  miles,  and  with  its 
tributaries  drains  2,455,000  square  miles.  At  the  Gulf,  the  delta 
of  the  river  covers  14,000  square  miles,  in  a  maze  of  creeks, 
bayous,  and  swamps.  The 
jetties,  at  the  mouth  of  the 
river,  cost  $5,000,000  to 
build;  they  afford  a  per- 
manent channel,  thirty  feet 
deep. 

Baton  Rouge,  the  capital, 
is  a  sleepy  old  town  on  the 
Mississippi  River  above 
New  Orleans ;  the  popula- 
tion in  1890  was  10,397. 
Shreveport,  in  Northern 
Louisiana,  is  on  the  Red 
River,  and  is  a  great  ship- 
ping centre  for  cotton  ;  its 
population  in  1890  was  11,- 
492.  The  Qovernor  of 
Louisiana  is  Francis  T.  Nicholls  (Democrat),  whose  term  expires 
May  16,  1892.  The  State  is  Democratic. 

Lowildes-CalllOim  Bill.      (See  Tariffs  of  the  United  States  ) 
LyncllillgS.      (See  Judge  Lynch.) 

McKinley  Tariff  Bill.      (See  Tariffs  of  the  United  States.) 
Mad  Anthony.     (See  Nicknames  of  Famous  Americans.) 
Magnetic  Mail.      (See  Nicknames  of  Famous  Americans.) 

Maine.—  Maine  was  settled  at  Pemaquid  in  1630  by  the  Eng- 
lish ;  it  was  originally  a  part  of  Massachusetts,  but  was  separated 
from  it  in  1820,  when  it  was  admitted  to  the  Union  as  a  separate 
State.  It  was  a  patriotic  supporter  of  the  Union  in  the  Civil 
War,  and  raised  seventy  thousand  troops. 

It  is  noted  for  its  beautiful  Lakes,  its  Mountains,  and  its 
diversified  Scenery.  It  has  1,568  lakes  and  ponds,  the  chief  of 
which  are  Moosehead,  thirty-eight  by  twelve  miles  long,  and 
1,023  feet  above  the  sea  ;  Sebago,  fourteen  by  eleven  miles,  and 


EXCHANGE,     NEW    ORLEANS. 


174 


MAINE. 


GREAT    SEAL    OF    MAIXE. 


four  hundred  feet  deep;  the  Rangeley  Lakes,  1,511   feet  above 
the  sea,  and  covering  eighty  square    miles ;  Chesuncook,  twenty 

by  two  miles  in  area;  and  the  Schood- 
ics,  near  the  Eastern  boundary. 

Maine  has  live  large  rivers,  and  over 
five  thousand  streams,  thus  giving  it 
more  water-power  than  any  other 
part  of  the  world  of  the  same  size.  It 
has  immense  Areas  of  Woods,  20,- 
000  square  miles  in  all,  abounding  in 
huge  white  pines,  yellow  pines,  Nor- 
way and  pitch  pines,  elms,  spruce, 
maples,  hemlocks,  beeches,  button- 
woods,  oak,  poplars,  cedars,  birches, 
basswoods,  ashes,  and  firs.  Out  of 
this  vast  forest  400,000,000  feet  of  lumber  are  made  yearly. 

The  State  produces,  also,  red,  gray,  and  black  granite,  and 
other  kinds  of  granite  which  are  in  demand  for  public  buildings. 
The  annual  production  of  granite  blocks  for  street  paving  is  100,- 
000,000  a  year.  Freestone,  slate,  lime,  marble,  and  in  small 
quantities,  gold,  silver,  copper,  lead,  tin,  and  manganese  are  pro- 
duced. Some  rare  minerals  abound. 

Of  the  total  area  of  19,000,000  acres,  only  3,500,000  are  im- 
proved. There  are  65,000  farms,  valued  at  $11,000,000.  There 
is  a  large  Maritime  Trade.  The  State  has  2,500  vessels, 
aggregating  500,000  tons.  There  are  forty  shipyards,  employing 
two  thousand  men  in  the  building  of  ships  for  the  rjver  and  ocean 
trade.  The  cutting  of  ice  in  winter  for  exportation,  the  fisheries, 
and  the  canneries  are  important  industries.  There  are  several 
large  paper  mills  and  numerous  shoe  factories. 

The  population  in  18£0  was  648,936  ;  in  1890,  661,086.  The 
net  State  debt  was  $3,408,229.  The  real  and  personal  property 
was  valued  at  $266,000,000  ;  the  manufactures  aggregated  $79,- 
825,393;  the  farm  land  values  aggregated  $102,357,615,  the 
acreage  being  6,552,578  ;  the  school  attendance  was  98,641 ;  the 
railroad  mileage  was  1,338;  the  newspapers  in  1892  numbered 
175.  It  is  estimated  that  100,000  visitors  go  to  Maine  every 
summer ;  ma)iy  of  them  are  sportsmen,  in  pursuit  of  deer,  caribou, 
moose,  and  the  game  fish  of  the  great  lake  country. 

Portland  is  beautifully  situated  on  a  peninsula,  and  has  a  fine 
harbor.  Its  shipping  amounts  to  100,000  tons  a  year,  and  its 
trade  with  Canada  amounts  to  $50,000,000  a  year.  The  popula- 
tion of  Portland  in  1890  was  36,425.  Bangor,  on  the  Penobscot, 
is  one  of  the  greatest  lumber  marts  in  the  world  ;  the  population 
in  1890  was  19,103.  Lewiston,  which  is  the  third  city,  has 


MANUFACTURES.  175 

several  cotton  mills;  its  population  in  1890  was  21,701.  The 
capital  of  Maine  is  Augusta,  a  handsome  city  on  the  Kennebec, 
with  fine  water-power  facilities.  Here  is  situated  a  national 
arsenal,  with  several  thousand  stand  of  arms  and  many  cannon. 
The  Governor  of  Maine  is  Edwin  C.  Burleigh  (Republican).  His 
term  expires  January  4,  1893.  The  State  is  Republican. 

Malice  Toward  None,  and  Charity  For  All.  (See  Sayings 
of  Famous  Americans.) 

Mail  From  Maine.     (See  Nicknames  of  Famous  Americans.) 
Man  of  Destiny.     (See  Presidents  of  the  United  States.) 
Man    of   the  Town    Meeting.     (See  Nicknames  of  Famous 
Americans.) 

Manual  Training.     (See  Education.) 
Manufactures. 

Early  Manufactures.  Capital. 

Value  of  Products.  Employees. 

Wages.  Establishments. 

Probably  the  earliest  manufacturing  in  this  country  was  of 
glass,  at  Jamestown,  Va.,  in  1609.  In  the  year  1614,  the  keel  of 
the  "  Onrest "  was  laid,  this  being  among  the  earliest  recorded 
attempts  at  ship  building.  In  1629,  bricks,  which  up  to  this 
time  had  come  from  across  the  seas,  were  made  at  a  kiln  at 
Salem,  Mass.,  one  year  after  the  date  of  its  settlement.  Gov- 
ernor Stuyvesant,  of  New  York,  is  said  to  have  introduced  the 
art.  In  1633,  Saw  Mills  were  put  in  operation  at  New  York. 
Tinware  was  manufactured  at  Berlin,  Conn.,  in  1770,  and  in 
1780,  the  first  well-established  glass  factory  was  started  at 
Temple,  N.  H. 

In  the  early  part  of  the  eighteenth  century,  Spinning  Schools 
were  established  in  Boston,  but  it  was  not  till  1787  that  the  first 
cotton  mill  was  established  at  Beverly,  Mass.  The  year  previous 
had  seen  the  operation  of  a  machine  for  carding,  roving,  and 
spinning  cotton.  In  1783,  a  cotton-yarn  mill  was  started  at 
North  Providence,  R.  I.,  by  Samuel  Slater.  Cotton  sewing 
thread  was  first  manufactured  at  Pawtucket,  R.  I.,  in  1794.  The 
First  Mill  in  the  world  combining  the  requisites  for  producing 
a  finished  cloth  from  the  raw  material  was  established  at  Wal- 
tham,  Mass.  Jacob  Perkins  invented  and  erected  at  Newbury- 
port,  Mass.,  in  the  year  1790,  a  machine  which  had  a  capacity  for 
cutting  and  heading  ten  thousand  nails  per  day,  but  it 'was  not 
until  1815  that  the  smaller  nail,  a  tack,  could  be  manufactured  by 
machinery.  Such  a  contrivance  was  erected  at  Bridgewater, 


176  MANUFACTURES. 

with  a  capacity  of  150,000,000  tacks  per  year,  or  about  500,000 
per  day. 

Virginia  has  the  honor  of  first  manufacturing  hats,  which  were 
made  there  in  1622  ;  in  order  to  encourage  this  industry,  the 
Colonial  Government  in  1675  forbade  the  importation  of  hats 
from  European  countries.  The  census  of  1810  reports  the  returns 
from  this  branch  of  industry  to  have  been  $4,323,744. 

Silk  was  first  manufactured  in  the  South,  near  Charleston, 
S.  C.,  in  1755.  Lynn,  Mass.,  now  the  largest  shoe  manufacturing 
centre  in  the  world,  began  to  make  shoes  in  1635.  A  machine 
for  pegging,  the  first  invention  of  any  great  importance  to  this 
industry,  was  the  conception  of  Elias  Howe. 

Combs  were  made  of  iron  up  to  the  time  when  the  invention 
of  vulcanite  revolutionized  the  art  of  making  them.  In  1759,  at 
West  Newbury,  Mass.,  a  factory  for  the  production  of  iron 
combs  was  first  set  in  motion.  The  colonial  hand-made  cards 
for  carding  wool  and  cotton,  itself  a  most  valuable  and  important 
industry,  was  ruined  in  the  year  1777  by  the  invention  of  a 
machine  which  produced  these  cards  at  the  rate  of  three  hundred 
per  minute,  and  in  1784  this  machine  was  further  assisted  by 
another  which  had  a  capacity  for  cutting  and  bending  the  teeth 
at  the  rate  of  86,000  per  hour.  At  Jamestown,  Va.,  in  1620, 
laborers  at  the  Iron  Works  were  massacred  by  Indians,  and 
work  here  was  not  again  resumed  until  1712.  Cannon  balls  were 
made  in  Massachusetts  as  early  as  1664,  and  a  small  pot,  holding 
about  a  quart,  is  said  to  have  been  the  first  piece  of  casting 
attempted  on  this  side  of  the  Atlantic.  The  iron  for  this  was 
"  run  in  "  at  Lynn,  Mass.,  in  a  furnace  established  at  that  place  in 
1663.  In  the  year  1750  the  Colonies  possessed  three  iron  mills 
and  one  furnace. 

Although  the  manufacture  of  Cordage  was  commenced  in 
Boston  and  Charlestown  as  early  as  1631,  Maryland  and  Vir- 
ginia in  1794  had  more  factories  for  its  production  than  any  two 
of  the  other  colonies.  The  first  machine  for  making  cordage  was 
built  in  1626  at  New  York  upon  the  present  site  of  Trinity 
Church.  Another,  a  windmill,  erected  in  1633  at  Watertown,  Mass., 
was  afterwards  removed  to  Copp's  Hill,  Boston.  The  manufac- 
ture of  wall-paper  began  in  1765,  and  in  1789  a  mill  for  its  pro- 
duction at  Philadelphia  was  able  to  turn  out  sixteen  thousand 
pieces  per  month,  this  amount  being  considered  a  fair  quantity. 
It  was  not,  however,  till  1824  that  the  imitation  of  French  designs 
was  begun. 

The  manufacture  of  Agricultural  Implements  was  not 
begun  until  a  comparatively  recent  date,  and  Thomas  Jefferson 
was  among  the  first  to  supply  a  pattern  for  a  plough  ;  he  worked 


MANUFACTURES. 


177 


out  by  a  mathematical  calculation  the  true  surface  of  the  mold 
board.  In  1793  several  of  these  ploughs  were  manufactured  from 
his  design  and  were  used  upon  his  estates.  The  manufacture  of 
beer  was  first  undertaken  by  W outer  Van  T wilier,  his  brewery 
having  been  erected  in  New  York  in  1633.  Wine  was  manufac- 
tured first  in  1622  in  Virginia  by  a  man  who  visited  that  colony 
for  this  specific  purpose,  and  Governor's  Island,  Boston  Harbor, 
was  granted  in  1634  to  Governor  Winthrop,  who  wished  to 
utilize  it  as  a  vineyard.  The  distillation  of  brandy  was  begun  in 
1640.  In  this  year  the  first  linen  cloth  was  made  in  Massachu- 


IRON     MANUFACTURING    IN     PENNSYLVANIA. 


setts  and  one  year  later  a  bounty  was  awarded  by  the  colony  to 
encourage  its  manufacture. 

In  1644  the  first  systematic  attempt  at  the  production  of 
Woollen  Cloths  was  begun  at  Rowley,  Mass.,  and  the  United 
Company  of  Philadelphia,  which  owned  a  spinning  jenny  im- 
ported from  England,  was  organized  in  1804. 

The  first  Paper  Mill  of  which  we  have  any  account  was 
erected  at  Roxborough,  Pa.,  in  1693,  on  a  stream  since  called 
Paper  Mill  Run,  which  empties  into  the  Wissahickon,  by  William 
Rittinghuysen,  who  emigrated  from  Holland.  Rittinghuysen 


178 


MANUFACTURING    STATISTICS. 


and  William  Bradford  were  the  proprietors  in  the  manufacture 
of  paper,  made  from  linen  rags,  the  product  of  flax  grown  in  the 
vicinity,  which  had  been  manufactured  into  wearing  apparel. 
This  was  fifty  years  after  the  art  of  printing  was  discovered  and 
five  or  six  years  after  the  Crown  ordered  mills  to  be  established 
in  England.  Benjamin  Franklin  was  from  first  to  last  interested 
in  the  erection  of  eighteen  different  paper  mills,  of  which  in  1787 
there  were  sixty-three  in  operation  in  America.  Salt  was  manu- 
factured first,  it  is  said,  in  Jamestown,  Va.,  in  the  year  1620,  and 
at  Syracuse,  N.  Y.,  in  1787. 

In  1880,  the    Statistics   of   Manufactures    were    as   fol- 
lows :  — 


Establishments 

Steam  engines,  horse  power 
Water  wheels . . . 


253,852 
2,185,458 )  . 
1,225,379  J  ' 

Employees,  male,  above  sixteen  years 2,019,035  )  „  „» 

,.  females,  above  fifteen  years 531,639)    ''' 

Capital '. $2,790,272,606 

Wages 947,953,795 

Value  of  material 3,396,823,549 

„      „  products 5,369,579,191 

The  annual  product  of  flouring  and  grist  mills  was  $500,000,- 

000 ;    of    slaughter-houses, 
$300,000,000  ;    of  iron  and 
steel  works,  $300,000,000; 
of  woollens,  $270,000,000; 
of     lumber,    $230,000,000; 
of  foundry  products,  cotton 
goods,     men's 
clothing,       and 
boots  and  shoes, 
about     $200,- 
000,000      each. 
Two    thirds    of 
the       manufac- 
^  tures      are      in 
»New      England 
and  New  York, 
New       Jersey 
and       Pennsyl- 
A  DYNAMO.  vania.     The  re- 

turns of  manu- 
facturing in  1890  have  not  yet  been  complied,  but  unofficial  fig- 
ures show  a  large  growth,  both  in  the  number  of  establishments, 
and  in  the  product. 

The  following  table  shows  the  rate  of  increase  of  manufactur- 
ing in  1870  over  that  of  1860,  and  of  1880  over  1870. 


MAKYLAND. 


179 


1860-1870.  1870-1880. 

Establishments 80  per  cent.  7  per  cent. 

Employees 33    ,,      ,,  33    , 

Capital 100    „      „  64    , 

Wages  paid more  than  double,  52    . 

Value  of  material „        „          „  37    , 

„      ,,  products 2J4  times  greater,  13   , 

The  first  State  in  manufacturing  is  New  York ;  the  second  is 
Pennsylvania. 

The  United  States,  in  the  volume  of* its  manufactures,  leads  all 
the  nations.  By  Mulhall's  estimate,  in  1888  the  United  States 
produced  manufactures  valued  at  $7,215,000,000  ;  Great  Britain's 
were  valued  at  $4,100,000,000,  Germany's  at  $2,915,000,000, 
France's  at  $2,425,000,000,  Russia's  at  $1,815,000,000. 

Martling  Men.     (See  Political  Parties.) 

Martyr  President.     (See  Presidents  of  the  United  States.) 

Maryland. — Maryland  was  one  of  the  thirteen  original  States. 

It  was  named  after  Henrietta  Maria, 
wife  of  Charles  I.  of  England..  It 
refused  to  join  the  Confederacy, 
although  a  Slave  State. 

Chesapeake  Bay,  which  is  the 
largest  American  inlet,  runs  inland 
two  hundred  miles ;  its  oyster  beds 
have  a  great  value,  and  the  Cultivation 
of  oysters,  having  a  product  of  15,- 
000,000  bushels  a  year,  is  a  leading 
industry  employing  many  men. 
Terrapin,  seabass,  white  perch,  her- 
ring, mackerel,  weakfish,  and  shad 
abound  in  these  waters. 
The  Farm  Products  include  16,000,000  bushels  of  corn, 
6,000,000  bushels  of  wheat,  28,000,000  pounds  of  tobacco,  besides 
oats,  potatoes,  and  hay,  the  whole  valued  at  $40,000,000  a  year. 
Peaches,  melons,  strawberries,  and  other  choice  fruits,  grow  in  the 
fertile  lowlands. 

The  output  of  coal  is  2,500,000  tons  a  year.  The  production  of 
iron  varies  from  20,000  to  60,000  tons  a  year ;  there  are  twenty- 
two  blast  furnaces.  Zinc,  iron,  copper,  marble,  limestone,  sand- 
stone, and  slate  are  found,  besides  lime,  epsom  salts,  mica,  and 
granite.  The  manufactures  employ  75,000  persons,  and  aggre- 
gate $100,000,000.  The  population  of  Maryland  in  1880  was 
934,943  ;  in  1890,  1,042,390  ;  the  net  State  debt  was  $2,724,123  ; 
the  real  and  personal  property  was  valued  at  $486,000,000 ;  the 
acreage  of  farm  lands  was  5,185,221,  valued  at  $165,503,341 ;  the 
railroad  mileage  was  1,231  in  1890  ;  the  school  attendance  aver- 


GREAT     SEAL    OF     MARYLAND. 


180  MASSACHUSETTS. 

aged  99,220 ;  there  were  200  newspapers.  Baltimore,  the 
metropolis  of  Maryland,  is  the  fourth  maritime  city  ;  besides 
the  immense  coastwise  fleet,  the  arrivals  and  departures  of  foreign 
vessels  number  3,000  annually.  Steamship  lines  run  to  eight 
foreign  ports  and  to  all  the  important  American  ports.  The  city 
is  noted  for  its  beautiful  buildings,  cemeteries,  and  parks.  Here 
is  located  the  Peabody  Institute,  endowed  by  George  Pea- 
body;  it  has  a  library  of  100,000  volumes  free  to  the  public,  and 
an  art  gallery  containing  many  rare  art  treasures.  The  Institute 
gives  free  lectures  by  specialists,  and  instruction  in  music  to  250 
scholars.  There  are  many  handsome  monuments  in  the  city.  It 
is  the  seat  of  Johns  Hopkins  University,  endowed  by  its 
founder  with  $3,000,000,  mainly  for  the  higher  education  of 
college  graduates.  It  has  fifty-five  instructors  and  four  hundred 
students.  The  Baltimore  Free  Library,  founded  in  1882,  issues 
nearly  500,000  books  annually  to  the  citizens.  The  population 
of  Baltimore  in  1890  was  434,439.  The  Governor  of  Maryland 
is  Frank  Brown  (Democrat),  whose  term  expires  January  8, 
1896.  The  State  is  Democratic. 

Mason  and  Dixon's  Line.  —  This  was  a  boundary  line, 
defined  by  popular  usage,  which  separated  the  free  and  the  slave 
territory.  The  phrase  was  used  first  by  John  Randolph,  of  Vir- 
ginia, at  the  time  of  the  discussion  of  the  Missouri  Compromise. 
Originally,  it  was  the  parallel  of  latitude  39  degrees,  43  minutes, 
26.3  seconds,  separating  Pennsylvania  from  Maryland.  Finally, 
it  was  the  parallel  36  degrees,  30  minutes,  and  east  of  that,  the 
course  of  the  Ohio  River  to  the  Mississippi. 

Mason  and  Slidell.  —  Mas.on  and  Slidell  were  Southerners, 
who,  on  Nov.  7,  1861,  while  on  board  an  English  passenger 
steamer,  the  Trent,  were  seized  by  Captain  Wilkes,  commanding 
the  United  States  vessel,  San  Jacinto,  and  landed  at  Boston,  and 
imprisoned.  The  Southerners  were  supposed  to  be  rebel  emissa- 
ries to  England  and  France.  The  North  supported  Wilkes,  but 
England  demanded  reparation,  and  actually  began  preparations 
for  hostilities.  The  controversy  involved  the  question  ef  the  right 
of  search  of  a  neutral  vessel,  which,  when  exercised  by  Great 
Britain,  had  been  a  leading  cause  for  the  War  of  1812.  Charles 
Sumner  and  Secretary  Seward  maintained  that  Captain  Wilkes 
had  no  authority  for  his  conduct,  and  this  government  sent  an 
apology  to  England,  releasing  at  the  same  time  both  prisoners. 

Massachusetts.  —  Massachusetts  was  settled  for  the  first  time 
permanently  at  Plymouth,  in  1620,  by  Englishmen.  The  Massa- 
chusetts Bay  Colony  settled  at  Salem,  in  1628,  but  in  1630  the 
capital  was  removed  to  Shawmut,  which  was  afterwards  named 


MASSACHUSETTS. 


181 


GREAT  SEAL  OF  MASSACHUSETTS. 


Boston.      Another   colony  settled    at   Nantucket   and    Martha's 
Vineyard,  and  still  other  colonies  settled  in  the  following  years 

at  several  points  within  easy  distance 
of  Boston.  In  1643,  a  confederation 
of  Massachusetts,  Plymouth,  Con- 
necticut, and  New  Haven  was 
formed  for  defence  against  the  In- 
dians and  the  Dutch,  and  continued 
more  than  forty  years.  In  1691 
Massachusetts,  Plymouth,  and  Maine 
were  united  under  one  government 
called  the  "  Province  of  Massachu- 
setts Bay  and  New  England."  The 
part  played  by  Massachusetts  in  the 
Revolutionary  War  is  too  well 
known  to  require  description  here. 
Since  then  the  State  has  had  an  in- 
timate relation  with  the  history  of  the  country  in  all  its  phases. 

It  is  a  foremost  State  in  Manufactures,  Fisheries,  and 
Commerce  of  all  kinds.  It  is  estimated  that  $500,000,000  is 
invested  in  manufacturing  alone,  the  value  of  the  product  being 
•s<>7n, 000,000.  There  are  24,000  firms  and  corporations,  paying 
$150,000  in  wages  to  420,000  operatives.  The  manufactures  are 
most  diversified,  including  iron  and  steel  wire^  boots  and  shoes, 
watches,  silverware,  electric  motors,  and  electrical  apparatus, 
cotton  and  woollen  goods,  shovels,  agricultural  implements,  car- 
pets, furniture,  carriages,  cars,  rubber  goods,  confectionery,  paper, 
cordage,  machinery,  hardware,  cutlery,  and  many  other  articles 
for  use  in  every-day  life.  It  has  many  powerful  financial  institu- 
tions, some  of  which  have  played  an  important  part  in  the 
development  of  the  West.  Its  natives  have  always  been  noted 
for  their  pioneer  spirit,  and  thousands  of  her  sons  have  settled  in 
the  West  and  grown  up  with  the  country. 

There  are  granite  quarries  at  several  points ;  marble,  some  iron, 
and  lead  are  produced.  The  Fisheries  engage  the  attention  of 
100,000  people,  employing  one  thousand  vessels  and  twenty 
thousand  men.  The  catch,  which  is  principally  in  the  waters  of 
Newfoundland,  Labrador,  and  George's  Bank,  includes  cod,  hali- 
but, mackerel,  haddock,  and  bluefish,  and  is  very  valuable. 
Many  Massachusetts  vessels  are  in  the  coasting  trade.  The 
tonnage  is  526,200.  The  farm  products  are  valued  at  $48,000,- 
000  annually,  of  which  $13,000,000  is  in  dairy  articles,  and  $5,- 
000,000  in  market  gardening,  which  latterly  has  become  a  large 
and  profitable  industry.  Although  a  small  percentage  of  its 
population  are  agriculturists,  the  farm  valuation  is  $216,000,000. 


MASSACHUSETTS. 


Massachusetts  is  the  leading  Educational  State.  The 
public  school  system  was  originated  by  one  of  her  sons,  and  there 
are  many  institutions  of  higher  learning,  including  several  colleges. 
There  are  five  normal  schools,  a  normal  art  school,  7,147  public 
schools,  241  high  schools,  and  511  academies  and  private  schools; 
the  total  number  of  pupils  of  all  ages,  in  1890,  was  429,671. 

•The  population  of  Massachusetts  in  1890  was  2,238,94£.  The 
real  property  was  valued  at  $1,600,137,807  ;  the  personal  property 


THE    LONGFELLOW     HOUSE     AT     CAMBRIDGE. 

at  $553,996,819.  They  were  twenty-eight  cities  having  a  popu- 
lation of  over  12,000.  They  were  569  public  libraries,  with 
3,569,085  volumes;  there  Avere  179  savings  banks  having 
deposits  of  $372,476,568.  There  were  2,093  miles  of  railroad, 
and  655  periodicals  and  newspapers. 

Boston,  the  capital,  is  situated  at  the  head  of  Massachusetts 
Bay,  and  is  surrounded  by  the  most  beautiful  suburbs  in  the 


MASSACHUSETTS. 


183 


country.  It  has  numerous  historic  buildings,  including  the  Old 
State  House,  Old  South  Church,  Faneuil  Hall,  King's  Chapel, 
Christ  Church,  and  several  other  buildings  interesting  by  their 
connection  with  the  Revolution  and  early  colonial  history.  It 
has  numerous  buildings  of  fine  Architectural  Beauty,  the 
more  prominent  of  which  are  the  State  House,  Trinity  Church, 
the  New  Old  South  Church,  and  the  Museum  of  Fine  Arts, 
Many  of  its  suburbs,  besides  being  noted  for  their  beauty,  inter- 
est the  visitor  by  reason  of  their  historical  associations. 

In  Cambridge  is  Harvard  University,  founded  in  1636  by 
John  Harvard,  the  oldest  institution  of  learning  in  the  country, 
having  fine  college  buildings  and  grounds,  and  upwards  of  twenty- 
six  hundred  students.  It  has  also  an  Annex,  for  the  collegiate 
education  of  women,  having  130  students. 

Boston  Common,  situated  in  the  heart  of  the  city,  has  been 
public  property  since  1634,  and  comprises  forty-eight  acres  of 
well-kept  lawns  and  play- 
grounds, and  has  many  old 
trees.  The  Public  Garden, 
close  to  the  Common,  is  re- 
markable for  its  horticultural 
display  and  for  its  statues  of 
eminent  men.  Franklin  Park, 
four  miles  from  the  city  proper, 
consists  of  five  hundred  acres  of 
beautiful  lands  cape.  The 
national  institutions  include  a 
Sub-Treasury,  a  quaint  old 
Custom  House,  the  Navy  Yard 


CHAMBER    OF    COMMERCE    AT    BOSTON. 


at  Charlestown,  the  Arsenal  at 
Watcrtown,  and  the  harbor  forts,  Winthrop  and  Warren.  The 
Bunker  Hill  Monument  is  in  Charlestown.  The  Public 
Library  is  free  to  the  public,  and  issues  annually  one  million  books 
for  home  reading,  and  700,000  periodicals.  The  Young  Men's 
Christian  Union  has  a  well-planned  building  and  five  thousand 
members.  The  Museum  of  Fine  Arts  contains  the  works  of 
many  famous  masters,  and  among  the  museums  of  the  country 
ranks  first.  The  population  of  Boston  in  1890  was  448,477. 

The  second  city  in  size  is  Worcester,  which  is  a  manufactur- 
ing and  railway  centre;  the  population  in  1890  was  84,655.  The 
third  city  is  Lowell,  whose  population  in  1890  was  77,696.  Its 
mammoth  cotton  mills  and  their  products  are  famous  the  world 
over.  It  is  estimated  that  they  produce  145,000  miles  of  cotton 
cloth  annually,  and  employ  one  million  spindles.  The  other 
great  manufacturing  cities  are  Lawrence,  Fall  River,  Lynn, 


184 


MAYFLOWER    ARISTOCRACY. 


New  Bedford,  Fitchburg,  Taunton,  and  Haverhill.  Springfield 
(44,179  inhabitants)  is  a  beautiful  city  on  the  Connecticut  River, 
with  fine  public  buildings  and  a  large  United  States  Armory. 
The  Governor  of  Massachusetts  is  William  E.  Russell  (Democrat). 
His  term  expires  Jan.  4,  1893.  The  State  in  national  elections 
has  always  been  Republican. 

Massa  Linkum.     (See  Presidents  of  the  United  States.) 
Mayflower  Aristocracy.— In    Massachusetts  especially   this 
phrase  is  frequently  heard.     It  describes  the  social  influence  and 

importance  of  the  descendants 
of  the  Pilgrims  who  landed 
from  the  Mayflower  at  Ply- 
mouth in  1620.  The  pas- 
sengers on  the  Mayflower 
were  as  follows  : — Isaac  Aller- 
ton,  Jno.  Alden,  Jno.  Allerton, 
William  Bradford,  William 
Brewster,  John  Billington, 
Peter  Brown,  Richard  Brit- 
terage,  John  Carver,  Francis 
Cook,  James  Chilton,  John 
Crackston,  Richard  Clarke, 
Edward  Dotey,  Francis  Eaton, 
Thomas  English,  Samuel 
Fuller,  John  Rowland,  Stephen 
Hopkins,  Edward  Leister, 
Christopher  Martin,  William 
Mullins,  Edmund  Margeson, 
Degony  Priest,  Thomas  Rog- 
ers, John  Rigdale,  Edward 
Fuller,  Moses  Fletcher,  John 
Goodman,  Richard  Gardiner,  George  Soule,  Captain  Miles  Stand- 
ish,  Edward  Tilly,  John  Tilly,  Thomas  Tinker,  John  Turner, 
Edward  Winslow,  William  White,  Richard  Warren,  Thomas 
Williams,  Gilbert  Winslow. 

Servants  as  follows :  Carter,  Cooper,  Ely,  Holbeck,  Hooke, 
Langmore,  Latham,  Minter,  More,  Power,  Sampson,  Story, 
Thompson,  Trevore,  Wilder. 

Me  Too.     (See  Nicknames  of  Famous  Americans.) 
Mending  Fences.    (See  Slang  of  Politics.) 
Michigan. —  The  State  was  settled  at  Detroit,  by  the  French, 
in  1670.     It  was  admitted  as  a  State  in   1837  ;  it  consists  of  two 
peninsulas,  which,  in  parts,  border  on  Lakes  Huron,  St.   Clair, 
Erie,  Michigan,  and  Superior.     Its  extraordinary  Water  Facili- 


OLD    ELM     ON     BOSTON    COMMON. 


MICHIGAN.  185 

ties  allow  it  to  carry  on  more  shipping  than  any  other  Western 
State ;  it  has  a  fleet  of  four  hundred  steamboats,  with  a  tonnage 

of  140,000.  Its  fresh  water  fisheries 
are  valued  at  $1,500,000,  employing 
seventeen  hundred  men  and  produ- 
cing annually  25,000,000  pounds  of 
whitefish,  salmon,  sturgeon,  herring, 
and  other  lakefish. 

The  State  is  .noted  for  its  rivers, 
ponds,  lakes,  and  streams,  most  of 
which  are  utilized  in  the  lumbering 
industry,  which  is  the  leading  industry 
of  the  State.  A  large  proportion  of 
the  lumber  used  in  the  East  is  Mich- 
GREAT  SEAL  OF  MICHIGAN.  igan  lumber,  the  production  in  the 

Saginaw    Valley   alone    being    over 

1,000,000,000  feet  of  lumber  in  a  year.  There  are  in  operation 
one  thousand  saw  mills,  having  an  invested  capital  of  nearly 
$50,000,000  and  a  yearly  output  of  $60,000,000.  The  lumber 
produced  consists  of  cord-wood,  cedar,  hemlock,  pine,  and  many 
other  woods. 

The  St.  Mary's  Ship  Canal,  connecting  Lake  Superior  and 
Lake  Huron,  has  the  largest  lock  in  the  world  ;  it  was  built  of 
granite,  in  1881  at  a  cost  of  $1,000,000.  It  is  575  feet  long,  and 
eighty  feet  wide,  with  a  lift  of  twenty  feet.  It  is  large  enough 
to  float  two  large  lake  steamers;  over  10,600  vessels  with 
9,041,213  tons  of  cargo  valued  at  $102,214,949,  or  one  eighth  of 
the  entire  commerce  of  the  United  States,  passed  through  the 
canal  in  1890.  The  tonnage  on  this  canal  is  greater  than  that 
on  the  Suez  Canal,  and  includes  yearly  165,000,000  feet  of 
lumber,  25,000,000  bushels  of  wheat,  2,500,000  tons  of  iron  ore, 
and  large  quantities  of  coal. 

Michigan  is  first  in  the  production  of  Iron  Ore,  the  output  of 
which  is  one  fifth  of  the  entire  American  production.  The  yearly 
output  at  present  is  8,500,000  tons,  worth  $40,000,000.  In  the 
Lake  Superior  district  are  the  most  profitable  Copper  Mines  in 
the  world,  which  have  produced  over  $200,000,000  worth  of  the 
finest  copper.  There  are  several  gold  mines  in  operation,  and 
this  region  has  also,  silver,  agate,  freestone,  marble,  limestone, 
granite,  and  other  valuable  deposits.  Salt  is  produced  to  the 
extent  of  over  4,000,000  barrels  a  year  ;  the  production  of  coal  is  ' 
about  70,000  tons  a  year. 

Michigan  produces  of  wheat,  27,000,000  bushels  a  year  ;  of 
corn  21,000,000 ;  of  oats,  27,000,000 ;  of  potatoes,  10,000,000. 
The  fruit  industry  produces  apples,  peaches,  cherries,  plums, 


Igg  MINING. 

strawberries,  and  grapes.  The  product  of  wool  is  12,000,000 
pounds  yearly.  The  total  manufactures  of  Michigan  are  nine 
thousand  in  number,  with  a  yearly  product  of  $150,000,000. 

The  Population  of  Michigan  in  1830  was  1,636,937  ;  in  1890, 
it  was  2,093,889  ;  the  real  property  was  valued  at  $7ir,()00,000  ; 
the  personal  property  at  $140,000,000  ;  the  acreage  of  farm  lands 
was  13,869,221,  valued  at  $499,103,181  ;  the  farm  products  were 
valued  at  $91,000,000  a  year ;  the  school  attendance  was  279,900  ; 
there  were  690  newspapers  in  1892,  and  in  1890  7,242  miles  of 
railroad.  Detroit,  which  is  situated  on  the  Detroit  River  at  the 
outlet  of  the  Upper  Great  Lakes,  has  an  immense  maritime  and 
railway  traffic.  It  has  a  water  front  nine  miles  long ;  and  more 
tonnage  passes  it  than  any  other  point  on  the  globe.  The  tonnage 
passing  Detroit  River  during  1889  amounted  to  36,203,606  tons; 
nearly  10,000,000  tons  more  than  the  entries  and  clearances  of  all 
the  seaports  in  the  United  States ;  and  nearly  3,000,000  tons 
more  than  the  combined  foreign  and  coastwise  shipping  of  Liver- 
pool and  Lpndon.  The  city  has  many  fine  public  buildings  and 
large  factories.  It  has  a  fine  hospital,  a  Museum  of  Arts,  a 
Public  Library  containing  one  hundred  thousand  volumes,  a 
beautiful  Soldiers'  Monument  which  cost  $60,000,  and  a  seven 
hundred  acre  park.  On  the  river-bank  is  the  United  States 
Marine  Hospital,  and  near  the  city  is  Fort  Wayne,  which  is 
occupied  by  the  United  States  troops.  The  population  in  1890 
was  205,876. 

The  second  city  of  Michigan  is  Grand  Rapids,  where  an  extensive 
furniture  manufacturing  industry  is  carried  on.  The  population  in 
1890  was  60,278.  Lansing,  which  is  the  capital,  has  some  manufac- 
turing and  is  the  site  of  several  State  institutions.  The  other 
important  cities  are  Bay  City  (27,839  inhabitants),  Muskegon 
(22,702),  and  Jackson  (20,798).  The  Governor  of  Michigan  is 
Edwin  B.  Winans  (Democrat),  whose  term  expires  January  1, 
1893.  The  State  is  Republican. 

Milk,  Production  Of.     (See  Agriculture.) 
Mill   Boy    Of   the    Slashes.     (See     Nicknames   of   Famous 
Americans.) 

Mills  Tariff.     (See  Tariffs  of  the  United  States.) 
Mining. 

Gold.  Copper. 

Silver.  Petroleum. 

Goal.  Building  Stone. 

Early  Mining. 

The  phenomenal  mineral  production   of  the   United  States  is 


MINING. 


187 


188 


MINING. 


one  of  its  chief  sources  of  wealth.  Nearly  every  State  and 
Territory  produces  minerals  in  some  form  or  another.  Although 
handicapped  by  the  lack  of  suitable  tools,  the  people  of  the 
last  century  began  to  dig  up  the  earth  in  search  of  the  hidden 
riches.  Iron  was  produced  in  Pennsylvania  as  early  as  1688, 
when  it  is  recorded  that  William  Penn  operated  a  blast  furnace 
on  the  Delaware  River.  In  1715,  iron  ores  were  discovered  in 
Virginia.  Not  long  after  Connecticut  mined  iron  and  copper 
ores,  and  many  of  the  weapons  used  by  the  patriots  in  the  Revolu- 
tionary War "  were  made  therefrom.  The  Copper  from  the 
Granby,  Conn.,  copper  mines  was  used  in  coining  the  copper 
cents  of  1737,  the  first  copper  cents  used  in  this  country.  Quar- 
ries producing  stone  which  was  utilized  for  grave-stones  were 
operated  in  Vermont  as  early  as  1785. 

Gold  was  discovered  in  both  Georgia  and   North    Carolina 

about  1830,  and  was  pro- 
duced in  such  large 
amounts  that  the  United 
States  Government 
established  mints  at 
Dahlonega,  Ga.,  and 
Charlotte,  N.  C.  in 
1861.  Between  1837 
and  1861,  over  $6,- 
000,000  of  gold  was 
minted  at 
the  Dahlo- 
nega mint. 
Mich  igan 
had  Salt 
Quarries 
in  operation 
i  n  1838, 
and  copper, 
in  the  pro- 
duction of  which  it  has  grown  so  that  it  leads  the  entire  world, 
was  mined  first  in  1845.  The  coal  and  iron  mines  of  Penn- 
sylvania have  yielded  extensive  outputs  for'  over  fifty  years. 
Coal  was  mined  in  the  States  as  early  as  1781,  by  the  Lehigh 
Mining  Company. 

The  Discovery  of  Gold  in  California  in  1848  led  to  an 
immense  immigration,  and  prospectors  roamed  through  the  contig- 
uous country  with  the  result  that  the  rich  deposits  of  precious  metals 
in  other  States  were  opened  up.  Gold  was  discovered  in  Idaho 
and  in  Montana  in  1852,  Silver  in  Nevada  in  1858,  silver  in 


MARBLE  QUARRYING  IN  VERMONT. 


MINING    STATISTICS.  189 

Colorado  in  the  same  year,  gold  in  Wyoming  in  1867,  while  in 
South  Carolina  gold  was  found  in  sixty  places  several  years  prior 
to  the  war.  Arizona  began  to  yield  up  its  silver  treasure  in 
187*. 

Since  1793,  Twenty-nine  States  and  Territories  have 
produced  gold  in  large  or  small  amount.  These  are :  Alabama, 
Alaska,  Arizona,  California,  Colorado,  Georgia,  Idaho,  Indiana, 
Maine,  Maryland,  Massachusetts,  Michigan,  Montana,  Nebraska, 
Nevada,  New  Hampshire,  New  Mexico,  North  Carolina,  Oregon, 
Pennsylvania,  South  Carolina,  South  Dakota,  Tennessee,  Texas, 
Utah,  Vermont,  Virginia,  Washington,  and  Wyoming. 

The  Total  Gold  Production  of  the  United  States  since  its 
discovery,  including  1891,  is  11,870,345,000;  of  silver,  $1,072,- 
721,565  ;  total,  §2,943,066,565.  Of  the  gold  produced  in  five 
hundred  years  in  all  countries,  up  to  1880,  the  United  States 
produced  19.7  per  cent.  (Mulh all's  estimate) ;  of  the  silver  6  per 
cent.  Spanish  America  produced  21.5  per  cent,  of  the  gold. 
California  is  the  first  State  in  gold  production  ;  Nevada  the  first 
in  silver  production. 

In  1890,  the  gold  production  was  valued  at  $32,845,000;  the 
silver  production  at  $70,464,000.  In  1891,  the  gold  product 
was  valued  at  $33,175,000  ;  the  silver  product  (coining  value) 
at  $75,416,565.  The  latter  was  the  largest  production  on  record 
in  this  country.  The  production  of  silver  has  steadily  increased, 
while  that  of  gold  has  decreased.  The  largest  amount  of  gold 
produced  in  one  year  in  this  country  was  $65,000,000,  in  1853. 

In  1889-90,  the  Coal  Product  aggregated  $141,229,515  short 
tons;  the  valuation  before  shipment  was  $160,226,000.  The 
average  value  of  all  grades  of  anthracite  before  shipment  was 
*1.58  a  ton  ;  of  bituminous  ninety-nine  cents.  The  chief  coal- 
producing  States  (1890)  and  their  outputs  in  tons  are  as  follows: 
Alabama,  3,378,484;  Colorado,  2,360,536;  Illinois,  12,104,272; 
Indiana,  2,845,057  ;  Indian  Territory,  732,832;  Iowa,  4,061,704; 
Kansas,  2,230,763;  Kentucky,  2,399,755;  Maryland,  2,939,715; 
Missouri,  2,567,823  ;  Montana,  363,301 ;  New  Mexico,  486,983  ; 
Ohio,  9,976,787;  Pennsylvania,  anthracite,  45,544,970;  bitu- 
minous, 36,174,089  ;  Tennessee,  1,925,689;  Virginia,  anthracite, 
2,817 ;  bituminou^,  865,786 ;  Washington,  993,724 ;  West 
Virginia,  6,231,880  ;  Wyoming,  1,388,947.  The  total  coal  out- 
putin  1890  was  about  175,000^000  tons. 

The  output  of  all  the  minerals  is  increasing  except  that  of  gold. 
Granite  is  produced  in  twenty-four  States  and  Territories; 
Sandstone  in  thirty  five-States ;  Limestone  in  thirty-five 
States;  Petroleum  is  produced  chietiv  in  Pennsylvania  and 
New  York  (21,486,483  barrels),  Ohio  (12,471,965  barrels),  West 


190  MINNESOTA. 

Virginia  (358,269  barrels),  Colorado  (316,476  barrels)  ;  Iron 
Ores,  Michigan  first  (5,865,169  tons) ;  Alabama  second  (1,570,- 
319  tons)  ;  Pennsylvania  third  (1,560,334  tons)  ;  New  York 
fourth  (1,247,537  tons) ;  Copper,  Michigan  first  (87,455,675 
tons)  ;  Arizona  (31,586,185  tons)  ;  New  Mexico  (3,686,137  tons), 
Colorado  (1,170,053  tons)  ;  Slate  in  twelve  States,  Pennsyl- 
vania being  first,  followed  by  Vermont,  Maine,  New  York, 
Maryland,  and  Virginia.  All  the  Quicksilver  except  a  small 
quantity  from  Oregon  comes  from  California. 

The  Mineral  Product,  including  the  metals,  pig-iron 
($151,200,410),  silver  ($70,464,645),  gold  ($32,845,000),  copper, 
($30,848,797),  lead  ($14,266,703),  and  zinc  ($6,266,407),  be- 
sides quicksilver,  nickel,  aluminium,  antimony,  and  platinum,  was 
worth  in  1891,1307,334,207.  The  Non-Metallic  Minerals, 
chief  of  which  are  coal,  bituminous  ($110,420,801)  and  anthracite 
($61,445,683),  building  stones,  including  granite,  marble,  sand- 
stone, etc.,  ($54,000,000),  lime  ($28,000,000),  petroleum  ($35,- 
000,000),  natural  gas,  ($20,000,000),  cement,  ($6,000,000),  salt, 
($4,707,869),  phosphate  rock  ($3,213,795),  and  mineral  waters 
($2,338,140),  besides  thirty-four  other  non-metallic  minerals,  were 
worth  in  1891,  $334,959,893.  Total  value  of  all  minerals  in  1891, 
$642,294,100. 

Minnesota.  —  The  State  was  settled  at  Fort  Snelling,  in  1819, 
by  Americans,  although  French  fur 
traders,  and  afterwards  missionary 
priests,  entered  the  country  as  early  as 
1659.  One  part  of  Minnesota  be- 
longed to  the  province  of  Louisiana, 
which  was  bought  from  France  by  the 
United  States  in  1803.  It  was  ad- 
mitted to  the  Union  in  1857.  Lieu- 
tenant Pike,  of  the  United  States 
Army,  visited  the  region  in  1805  to 
expel  British  traders.  The  State  de- 
veloped in  the  same  phenomenal  way 
GREAT  SEAL  OF  MINNESOTA,  that  has  characteri/ed  the  growth  and 
progress  of  other  great  Western  States. 

Prairies  occupy  the   centre  and  south  of   the    State,  while   the 
northern  part  is  covered  by  an  extensive  belt  of  pine  forests. 

The  Mississippi  Valley  occupies  two  thirds  of  the  State,  the 
mighty  Mississippi  River  deriving  its  source  from  the  great  cen- 
tral plateau  of  Minnesota,  in  Lake  Itasca,  1,575  feet  above  tide- 
water. Near  there  also  rises  the  Red  River  of  the  North,  in 
Elbow  Lake,  which  empties  into  Hudson  Bay ;  the  beginnings  of 


MINNESOTA. 


191 


the  Great  Lakes  are  also  here.  There  are  over  fifteen  hundred 
miles  of  navigable  waters  in  the  State,  and  there  are  ten  thou- 
sand lakes  situated  in  .1  wild  and  beautiful  country  much  fre- 
quented by  sportsmen. 

Near  Fort  Snelling  are  the  Falls  of  Minnehaha,  immortal- 
ized by  Longfellow ;  there  are  several  other  falls  and  picturesque 
cascades. 

The  immense  area  and  the  fertility  of  farming  country  have 
enabled  Minnesota  to  become  one  of  the  great  grain-producing 
States. 

The  production  of  Wheat  has  exceeded  45,000,000  bushels  a 
year ;  that  of 
Oats,  48,000,- 
000 ;  that  of 
Corn,  22,000,- 
000.  Only 
twenty  per 
cent,  of  the 
available  farm 
lands  are  under 
cultivation,  and 
there  are  still 
vast  areas  open 
for  cultivation. 

It  is  a  fore- 
most lumbering 
State  ;  472,- 
000,000  feet  of 
sawed  lumber, 
and  180,000,- 
000  shingles 
have  been  pro- 
duced in  a 

year.  There  are  extensive  iron  mines.  The  State  also  produces 
fine  building  stone,  including  limestone,  whitestone,  dolomite, 
and  brownstone,  besides  gray,  white,  and  red  granite,  which  are 
much  sought  after  for  public  buildings. 

The  manufactures  of  Minnesota  in  1890  aggregated  $76,065,- 
198;  the  acreage  of  farm  lands  was  13,403,019;  valued  at  $193,- 
724,260;  the  farm  products  were  worth  $49,468,951;  the  real 
property  was  worth  $382,000,000 ;  the  personal  property  was 
worth  $87,000,000.  The  school  attendance  was  111,641.  In 
1891  there  were  5,666  miles  of  railroad,  and  in  1892  there  were 
476  newspapers.  The  population  in  1880  was  780,773;  in  1890, 
it  was  1,301,826. 


192  .  MISSISSIPPI. 

The  chief  cit3r  is  St.  Paul,  which  is  situated  at  the  head  of 
navigation  on  the  Mississippi,  is  the  capital,  and  had  a  population 
in  1890  of  133,150.  Minneapolis  had  a  population  in  1890 
of  164,738.  These  cities  are  within  a  few  miles  of  each 
other,  and  both  have  fine  churches,  schools,  public  buildings,  and 
dwelling  houses.  St.  Paul  is  a  centre  of  an  immense  railway 
traffic,  and  it  is  a  great  manufacturing  centre,  the  yearly  product 
amounting  to  over  $50,000,000  a  year.  It  is  the  centre  of  the 
wholesale  and  jobbing  trade  of  the  Northwest.  It  has  large 
meat-packing  establishments  and  extensive  breweries  and  distil- 
leries. 

Minneapolis  has  lumber  mills  producing  over  340,000,000 
feet  of  lumber  yearly.  It  is  the  largest  flour  centre  in  the  world, 
having  over  twenty  mills,  with  a  combined  capacity  of  nearly 
40,000  barrels  a  day.  The  output  of  flour  has  exceeded  7,000,- 
000  barrels  in  a  year.  Minneapolis  has  a  Court  House  and  City 
Hall  erected  at  a  cost  of  $2,500,000,  a  fireproof  Public  Library, 
and  an  Art  Museum. 

The  third  city  of  Minnesota  is  Duluth,  which  had  a  popula- 
tion of  33,115  in  1890;  it  is  situated  at  the  extreme  western 
point  of  the  Great  Lakes.  It  has  a  wonderful  system  of  harbors 
which  are  reached  by  a  ship  canal,  fifteen  hundred  feet  long  and 
three  hundred  feet  wide.  It  is  the  centre  of  a  great  shipping  trade 
eastward  through  the  Great  Lakes  ;  it  has  immense  grain  elevators, 
and  the  most  improved  machinery  for  loading  wheat  on  to  steamers. 
The  capacity  of  its  elevators  is  21,000,000  bushels  of  wheat,  and 
the  arrivals  and  shipments  in  a  year  aggregate  30,000,000  bushels. 
More  than  2,000  vessels,  bringing  1,500,000  tons  of  coal,  and 
carrying  away  over  3,500,000  barrels  of  flour,  enter  and  leave 
the  port  in  a  year.  The  Governor  of  Minnesota  is  William  R. 
Merriam  (Republican),  whose  term  expires  January  2,  1893.  The 
State  is  Republican. 

Mints.     (See  Coinage,  Coins,  etc.) 

Mississippi. —  The  State  was  settled  at  Fort  Rosalie,  by  the 
French,  in  1716  ;  the  greater  part  of  it  was  ceded  by  France  to 
England,  by  the  Treaty  of  Paris,  in  1763,  and  belonged  at  the 
time  to  the  Province  of  Illinois.  It  was  a  rampant  secession 
State,  and  during  the  war  was  a  centre  of  active  hostilities  from 
1861  to  the  surrender  of  Vicksburg,  July  4,  1863.  The  Missis- 
sippi River  skirts  the  western  frontier,  its  chief  tributary  from  the 
State  being  the  Yazoo  River,  264  miles  long,  and  navigable 
throughout. 

The  Steamboats  carry  50,000  bales  of  cotton  annually  from 
the  surrounding  country,  and  transport  shipments  aggregating 


MISSISSIPPI. 


193 


GKEAT    SEAL    OF     MISSISSIPPI. 


$3,500,000.     The  Tallahatchie,  the  Yalobusha,  Tchula  Lake,  the 
Big   Black    River,  the    Pearl   River,  the  Tombigbee  River,  the 

Noxubee,  the  Pascagoula  River  are  all 
navigable  and  are  plied  by  steamboats 
in  the  cotton  trade. 

The  chief  industry  is  Cotton,  the 
product  of  which  is  now  over  1,000,- 
000  bales  a  year.  Mississippi  is  the 
second  cotton  State.  The  crop  is 
produced  one  third  by  white  men  and 
two  thirds  by  negroes.  Cotton  seed 
is  produced  to  the  amount  of  28,000,- 
000  bushels  a  year ;  the  corn  crop 
averages  25,000,000  bushels.  Oats, 
rice,  potatoes,  wheat  are  also  produced, 
and  along  the  Gulf  coast,  figs,  oranges, 
grapes,  strawberries,  melons,  and  other  fruits.  The  State  has 
200,000  sheep,  over  400,000  cattle,  1,600,000  hogs,  100,000 
mules,  and  as  many  horses.  It  has  a  rich  Forest  Growth 
covering  three  fifths  of  its  area,  including  oak,  cedar,  black  wal- 
nut, cotton-wood,  yellow-pine,  poplar,  and  other  trees.  It  is  esti- 
mated that  the  pine  woods  are  alone  worth  $200,000,000.  On 
the  Gulf  coast  are  numerous  summer  resorts. 

The  population  in  1880  was  1,131,597  ;  in  1890,  it  was  1,289,- 
600,  of  whom  747,720  were  colored ;  the  net  State  debt  was 
$3,246,183.  The  real  property  was  valued  at  $87,000,000 ;  the 
personal  property  at  $35,000,000  ;  the  manufactures  aggregated 
$7,495,802;  the  acreage  of  farm  lands  was  15,883,251,  valued  at 
$92,844,915;  the 
farm  products 
were  valued  at 
$63,701,844  ;  the 
school  attendance 
was  193,1 19;  there 
were  in  1890,  2,- 
332  miles  of  rail- 
road, and  in  1892 
there  were  163 
newspapers. 

V  i  c  k  s  burg, 
situated  on  the 
Mississippi,  is  in  the  midst  of  a  picturesque  country.  There  are 
large  foundries  and  machine  shops,  and  sixty  thousand  bales  of 
cotton  are  received  in  a  year.  There  is  a  national  cemetery  con- 
taining the  graves  of  over  sixteen  thousand  Union  soldiers  who 


194  MISSOURI. 

died  on  Mississippi  soil.  The  population  of  Vicksburg  in  1890 
was  13,373.  The  capital  of  Mississippi  is  Jackson,  situated  on 
the  Pearl  River,  in  a  prolific  cotton  and  corn  country.  The 
second  city  of  the  State  is  Brookhaven,  with  a  population  in  1890 
of  12,572  ;  Natchez  is  on  the  Mississippi,  situated  on  a  bluff  two 
hundred  feet  high  and  had  a  population  in  1890  of  10,101.  The 
Governor  of  Mississippi  is  John  M.  Stone  (Democratic).  His 
term  expires  January  1,  1896.  The  State  is  Democratic. 

Missouri.  —  The  State  was  settled  at  St.  Genevieve  by  the 
French  in  1755  ;  it  was  a  part  of  the  Louisiana  Purchase.  The 

Territory  of  Missouri,  founded  in 
1812,  extended  as  far  north  as  western 
Minnesota  and  Dakota,  and  included 
most  of  Kansas,  Colorado,  and  Wyom- 
ing ;  it  was  admitted  to  the  Union 
as  a  State  in  1821,  under  the  famous 
Missouri  Compromise  Act,  which  per- 
mitted slavery  in  the  State,  but  ex- 
cluded it  from  the  rest  of  the  Louisi- 
ana Purchase.  The  State  remained 
true  to  the  Union  at  the  secession 
period,  and  raised  many  regiments  for 

GREAT  SEAL  OF  MISSOURI.      the  war.     It  saw  some  active  fighting 
on  her  soil.     By  her  own  act,  Missouri 
freed  her  slaves,  numbering  114,000,  and  worth  $40,000,000. 

The  Mississippi  River  flows  along  its  eastern  boundary, 
and  the  Missouri  River  for  many  miles  on  the  western.  The 
commerce  on  the  Mississippi,  the  Missouri,  the  Platte,  La  Grange, 
Osage,  the  Fabius,  the  Salt,  and  other  tributary  rivers,  aggregates 
many  millions  a  year. 

In  Farm  Products  the  State  ranks  third ;  it  raises  of  corn 
219,000,000.  bushels  yearly ;  of  oats,  36,000,000  ;  of  wheat,  2(),- 
000,000  ;  of  potatoes,  6,000,000  ;  of  tobacco,  13,000,000  pounds  ; 
of  cotton,  20,000  bales,  besides  rye;  barley,  sorghum,  hemp, 
grasses,  apples,  and  pears,  plums  and  cherries,  figs  and  nectar- 
ines, grapes,  and  peaches,  strawberries  and  apricots.  In  the  pro- 
duction of  wines  Missouri  ranks  second  to  California.  There 
are  2,200,000  cattle  in  the  State,  1,300,000  sheep,  3,200,000  hogs, 
and  950,000  mules  and  horses.  There  is  a  large  business  in 
native  furs,  which  are  made  from  the  skins  of  animals  killed 
chiefly  within  the  confines  of  the  State. 

The  Coal  mined  in  the  State  amounts  to  2,500,000  tons  a  year. 
Beds  of  bituminous  and  cannel  coal  have  a  total  area  of  25,000 
square  miles,  being  a  continuation  of  the  coal-fields  of  Iowa. 


MISSOURI. 


195 


There  are  valuable  deposits  of  iron  ore,  the  working  of  which 
gives  employment  to  thousands  of  men,  and  keeps  more  than 
twenty  blast-furnaces  in  operation.  Lead  is  especially  abundant, 
the  output  having  exceeded  60,000,000  pounds  in  a  year.  Zinc 
yields  about  1 '2,000  tons  annually,  and  in  this  industry  Missouri 
is  the  first  State.  There  are  also  quarries  of  sandstone  of  differ- 
ent kinds,  of  marble,  of  lime  and  cement,  of  slate,  and  of  lime- 
stone. In  manufacturing,  flour  is  a  leading  industry.  The  acreage 
of  tobacco  lands  is  upwards  of  15,000,  with  an  average  crop  of  13,- 
000,000  pounds,  valued  at  $1 ,050,000.  The  State  has  ten  thousand 
acres  under  cultivation  for  the  raising  of  grapes  for  wines ;  the 
value  of  the  wine  produced  in 
1889  and  of  the  vineyards  was 
$4,605,000. 

The  Population  in  1880 
was  2,168,380;  in  1890  it  was 
2,677,080.  The  net  State  debt 
was  $8,439,749.20;  the  real 
property  was  valued  at  $550,- 
000,000,  the  personal  property 
at  $289,000,000.  The  acreage 
of  farm  lands  was  28,177,990, 
valued  at  $375,000,000.  The 
farm  products  were  valued  at 
$95,000,000.  The  school  at-  - 

tendance    was    376,000,  the   number   of  miles   of  railroads   was 
6,004,  and  in  1892  there  were  849  newspapers. 

St.  Louis  has  a  fine  situation  on  the  Mississippi,  in  the  heart 
of  an  immense  river  navigation,  which  makes  her  the  most  im- 
portant trade  centre  of  the  Southwest.  The  city  covers  forty 
thousand  acres  and  has  a  river  front  of  nearly  twenty  miles. 
There  are  twenty-two  railroads  converging  at  St.  Louis.  There 
is  a  fine  bridge  designed  by  James  B.  Eads,  built  at  the  cost  of 
810,000,000.  (See  Railroads  and  Bridges.)  The  clearing  house 
business  is  over  $1 ,000,000,000  a  year.  Fifteen  million  tons  of 
freight  are  received  yearly.  The  flour  mills  of  the  city  produce 
2,000,000  barrels  of  flour  annually.  The  exports  of  hog  products 
amount  to  over  300,000,000  pounds ;  over  2,000,000  head  of  live 
stock  are  received.  The  towing  of  freight  trains  to  New 
Orleans,  a  distance  of  1,240  miles,  on  huge  boats  constructed  for 
the  purpose,  disposes  of  over  500,000  tons  of  freight  a  year.  The 
Fleet  of  Steamboats,  leaving  St.  Louis  for  the  lower  Missis- 
sippi, numbers  almost  1,000 ;  those  for  the  upper  Mississippi 
number  800  ;  for  the  Missouri  River,  175  ;  for  the  Illinois,  125  ; 
for  the  Cumberland  and  Tennessee,  150.  St.  Louis  is  the  fourth 


MERCA>TILE    LIBRARY,     ST.     LOCIS,     MO. 


196 


MISSOURI    COMPROMISE. 


manufacturing  city.  It  is  the  centre  of  an  immense  brewing 
business;  other  manufactures  are  stoves,  shoes,  and  tobacco. 
The  population  of  St.  Louis  was '451,770  in  1890. 

The  second  city  of  Missouri  is  Kansas  City,  whose  popula- 
tion in  1890  was  132,716  ;  it  is  an  important  financial  centre  of 
the  West;  the  chief  industry  is  in  meat-packing,  in  which  it 
ranks  first  among  the  American  cities.  The  third  city  of  Missouri 
is  St.  Joseph,  situated  on  the  Missouri,  in  the  western  part  of  the 
State  ;  it  has  stockyards  covering  over  four  hundred  acres  and  a 
wholesale  and  jobbing  trade  of  $150,000,000  a  year  ;  the  popula- 
tion in  1890  was  52,324.  David  11.  Francis  (Democrat)  is 
Governor  of  Missouri.  His  term  expires  January  9,  1893.  The 
State  is  Democratic. 

Missouri  Compromise. — This  is  the  name  given  to  the 
political  act  which  resulted  in  the  admission  of  Missouri  as  a  State. 

When,  in  1818,  Missouri  applied  for 
admission,  a  bill  providing  for  her 
admission,  but  prohibiting  slavery 
within  her  confines,  was  passed  by 
the  House,  but  was  defeated  in  the 
Senate.  The  Senate,  in  1820, 
passed  a  bill  providing  for  the  ad- 
mission of  Maine,  and  containing  a 
rid§r  which  permitted  Missouri  to 
organize,  but  the  House  rejected 
both  bill  and  rider.  After  a  pro- 
tracted wrangle,  a  compromise  was 
agreed  to,  by  which  Missouri  was 
admitted,  but  slavery  was  to  be  pro- 
hibited in  the  rest  of  the  Louisiana 
Purchase  north  of  thirty-six  degrees 
thirty  minutes  north  latitude.  In- 
asmuch as  this  restricted  territory 
included  the  greater  part  of  the  region  north  and  west  of  Mis- 
souri, the  compromise  was  more  or  less  of  a  victory  for  the  Anti- 
Slaveryites.  The  so-called  Compromise  of  1850,  which  was 
really  precipitated  by  the  Compromise  of  1820,  was  carried 
through  by  Henry  Clay  as  part  of  his  famous  Omnibus  Bill 
(which  see),  and  provided  for  the  abolition  of  the  slave  trade,  but 
not  of  slavery.  This  bill  having  become  law,  the  slavery  advo- 
cates, when  in  1854  the  Kansas-Nebraska  Bill  was  introduced,  in 
their  arguments  for  the  permission  of  slavery  in  Nebraska,  de- 
clared that  the  Compromise  of  1820  was  to  all  intents  and  pur- 
poses repealed,  and  made  void  by  the  Compromise  of  1850,  and 


1  GLOBE-DEMOCRAT  "  BUILDING,  ST. 
LOUIS,  MO. 


MONTANA. 


197 


a  bitter  struggle  was  the  result,  the  upshot  of  which  was  a  very 
clear  drawing  of  the  lines  between  North  and  South  on  the  ques- 
tion of  slavery  extension.  (See  Kansas- Nebraska  Bill.) 

Money  in  Circulation.     (See  Finances,  Government.) 
Money  Order  System.     (See  Post-Office  System.) 
Money  Slang.      (See  Coinage,  Coins,  etc.) 
Monkey  Wrench  District.      (See  Gerrymander.) 

Monroe  Doctrine. —  It  was  enunciated  by  President  Monroe, 
in  his  annual  message,  in  18*23  as  follows  :  "  That  we  should 
consider  any  attempt  on  the  part  [of  the  allied  powers],  to  extend 
their  system  to  any  part  of  this  hemisphere  as  dangerous  to  our 
peace  and  safety  ;  "  and,  "  that  we  could  not  view  any  interposi- 
tion for  the  purpose  of  oppressing  [governments  on  this  side  of 
the  Atlantic  whose  independence  we  had  acknowledged]  or  con- 
trolling in  any  manner  their  destinies  by  any  European  power,  in 
any  other  light  than  as  a  manifestation  of  unfriendly  disposition 
towards  the  United  States."  This  principle  has  always  been 
recognized  by  the  foreign  powers. 

Montana. — The  State  was  settled  at  Fort  Union,  in  1829,  by 
fur  traders.  The  Lewis  and  Clarke  expedition  penetrated  the 

country  early  in  the  century  and 
crossed  into  Idaho, 
grants  began  to 


The  immi- 
come  to  Mon- 
tana in  1861,  attracted  by  the 
discoveries  of  gold.  Mining 
Camps  sprang  up  in  great  pro- 
fusion, giving  birth  to  what  has 
become  the  foremost  industry 
of  the  State.  It  is  estimated 
that  over  $400,000,000  of  gold, 
silver,  copper,  and  lead  have 
been  mined  in  Montana,  and 
that  one  third  of  the  entire  pro- 
duct of  those  metals  in  the 
United  States  comes  from  Mon- 
tana. During  the  first  ten  years 
after  the  discovery  of  gold, 
$130,000,000  were  taken  out;  in  1888,  over  $4,000,000  in  gold, 
$19,000,000  in  silver,  $13,000,000  in  copper,  and  $1,000,000  in 
lead  were  produced. 

The  area  of  Montana  includes  30,000,000  acres  of  farm  lands, 
nearly  40,000,000  of  grazing  lands,  and  26,000,000  of  forests  and 
mountains.  Pine,  cedar,  black  ash,  and  yellow  pine,  aided  by 


GREAT     SEAL     OF     MONTANA     (BEFORE  IT 
WAS  ADMITTED  AS  A  STATE). 


198  MONTANA. 

the  exceptional  water-powers  of  the  State,  are  brought  to  the 
mills.  The  eastern  part  of  the  State  consists  of  rolling  plains, 
the  western  part  of  elevated  mountain  ranges.  The  State  is 
watered  by  several  large  rivers. 

The  Missouri,  which  rises  in  the  State,  flows  for  1,300  miles 
within  its  confines ;  the  other  rivers  are  the  Jefferson,  Madison, 
Sun,  Teton,  Marias,  Gallatin,  and  the  Columbia,  which  flows 
northwest  and  empties  into  the  Pacific  ocean,  also  derives  its 
source  in  Montana.  On  the  Missouri  River  are  numerous  falls, 
the  chief  of  which  is  the  Great  Falls,  which  descend  450  feet  in 
fifteen  miles,  with  one  fall  of  eighty-seven  feet  in  a  vertical  direc- 
tion. 

Part  of  the  Yellowstone  National  Park  is  in  Montana, 
and  the  Yellowstone  River  traverses  its  entire  length.  The  State 
abounds  in  natural  scenery  and  the  mineral  springs  are  noted 
among  the  health  resorts  of  the  Northwest.  The  wild  animals 
of  Montana  include  the  deer,  elk,  beaver,  moose,  mountain-sheep, 
goats,  bears,  mountain-lions,  wild-cats,  and  wolves.  Before  the 
advent  of  the  white  man  millions  of  buffaloes  roamed  the 
western  plain,  but  in  1884  the  last  great  herd  were  exterminated. 

The  Agricultural  resources  of  the  State  have  reached  a  high 
development.  The  product  of  wool  is  10,000,000  pounds  a  year 
from  2,089,000  sheep,  and  there  are  800,000  head  of  cattle.  The 
plains  of  Montana  afford  an  excellent  feeding  ground  for  steers 
from  Texas  and  New  Mexico,  which  are  kept  on  the  ranges  for 
two  years  and  then  sold  for  beef.  Coal-beds  underlie  60,000 
square  miles  and  the  output  is  360,000  tons ;  iron  ore,  granite, 
sandstone,  zinc,  and  other  minerals  have  been  found,  some  of  them 
in  large  amount.  The  defences  of  Montana  are  Fort  Assini- 
boine,  Fort  Keogh,  Fort  Custer,  Fort  Shaw,  Fort  Maginnis,  and 
Fort  Missoula. 

The  Indian  Agencies  are  the  Flathead,  Fort  Peck,  and  there 
are  several  Indian  reservations.  The  population  of  Montana  in 
1880  was  39,159;  in  1890,  131,769.  The  assessed  property  in 
1888  was  $67,430,000;  the  manufacturers  were  worth  $2,000,000 
a  year ;  the  acreage  of  farm  lands  was  405,683  valued  at  $3,234,- 
504 ;  the  farm  products  were  worth  over  $2,000,000  a  year  ;  the 
daily  school  attendance  was  8,600.  There  are  2,181*  miles  of 
railroad,  and  in  1892  there  were  six  newspapers. 

The  metropolis  of  the  State  is  Helena,  which  is  also  the  capi- 
tal ;  it  is  a  substantial  and  prosperous  city  and  stands  4,250  feet 
above  the  sea  in  a  dry  and  exhilarating  atmosphere.  The  popu- 
lation in  1890  was  13,834.  There  is  a  Board  of  Trade  and  a 
Citizens'  Committee,  organized  in  the  interest  of  the  city ;  and 
there  are  public  libraries,  a  fire  department,  waterworks,  sewer- 


MONUMENTS    AND    STATUES.  199 

age,  and  rapid  transit  facilities.  The  United  States  Assay  Office 
is  here.  The  second  city  of  Montana  is  Butte,  with  a  population 
in  1890  of  10,723  ;  it  is  a  wide-awake  mining  camp,  the  seat  of 
several  large  gold,  silver,  and  copper  mines,  having  an  output  of 
over  $'20,000,000.  The  third  city  is  Anaconda,  where  is  worked 
the  largest  smelter  in  the  world  ;  the  population  is  about  5,000. 
Joseph  K.  Toole  (Democrat)  is  Governor  of  Montana.  His  term 
expires  Jan.  2,  1893.  National  elections  show  that  Montana  is 
generally  Democratic.  It  was  admitted  as  a  State  on  Nov.  8, 
1889. 

Monuments  and  Statues.     (See  also  Burial  Places  of  Presi- 
dents under  Presidents  of  the  United  States.) 

Washington  Monument.     Bunker  Hill   Monument. 
Statue  of  Liberty.  Monuments  of  Cities. 

The  monuments  and  statues  in  the  I  nited  States  tell  the  story 
of  a  nation.  Presidents,  statesmen,  soldiers,  naval  commanders, 
jurists,  philanthropists,  inventors,  and  last  but  not  least,  the 
thousands  who  died  for  the  flag,  have  been  remembered  by  a 
grateful  people  in  memorials  of  enduring  bronze  and  stone. 
The  lessons  of  valor,  of  patriotism,  of  duty,  of  great  deeds 
nobly  and  chivalrously  performed,  have  been  thus  symbolized  that 
succeeding  generations  may  profit  by  the  example.  Not  only  the 
nation,  but  States  and  cities  have  erected  memorials  in  honor 
of  distinguished  dead.  Besides  these  there  are  many  monuments 
commemorative  of  important  events. 

The  highest,  and  therefore  the  most  notable  monument  in  the 
United  States,  is  the  Washington  Monument  at  Washington, 
D.  C.  No  structure  in  the  world,  excepting  the  Eiffel  Tower  at 
Paris,  is  higher.  The  latter  is  989  feet  in  height ;  the  Washing- 
ton Monument  is  over  555  feet  in  height.  The  corner-stone  was 
laid  on  July  4,  1848.  Robert  E.  Winthrop,  then  Speaker  of  the 
House,  delivered  the  oration.  Work  progressed  steadily  for 
about  six  years,  until  the  funds  for  the  construction  of  the  monu- 
ment were  exhausted.  At  that  time  the  monume*ht  was  about 
175  feet  high.  From  1854  until  1879  nothing  to  speak  of  was 
done  on  the  building.  In  the  year  last  named  Congress  voted  an 
appropriation  of  $200,000  to  complete  the  work.  From  that 
time  work  progressed  at  a  rapid  rate  until  December  6, 1884,  when 
the  shining  aluminum  apex  was  set  at  555  feet  5£  inches  from 
the  foundation  and  the  work  was  declared  finished.  The 
foundation  is  146£  feet  square;  the  number  of  marble  stones 
used  above  the  130-foot  level,  9,163  ;  total  weight  of  stone  used, 
81,120  tons.  The  total  cost  was  $1,200,000. 


200 


MONUMENTS   AND    STATUES. 


The  Lafayette  Monument,  also  at  Washington,  shows  a 
colossal  bronze  statue  of  Lafayette,  in  Continental  uniform ; 
bronze  statues  of  Kocharabeau  and  Duportail,  De  Grasse  and 
D'Estaing,  soldiers  of  the  French  army  and  fleet  which  aided  in 
establishing  the  Republic,  are  around  the  marble  base.  Story's 
statue  of  Chief  Justice  John  Marshall  stands  on  the  east  of  the 
capitol,  and  was  unveiled  in  1884.  Among  Washington's  other 
statues  are  those  of  Admiral  Dupont,  Admiral  Farragut,  Benja- 


STATUE    OF    -WASHINGTON    AT    BOSTON. 

min  Franklin,  General  Rawlins,  Professor  Henry,  and  President 
Garfield.  There  is  also  a  large  bronze  statue  of  Martin  Luther, 
erected  by  the  Lutherans  of  America. 

At  the  foot  of  Capitol  Hill  is  the  Naval  Monument,  or  Monu- 
ment of  Peace.  This  structure  is  of  Carrara  marble,  and  was 
made  in  Rome,  and  was  paid  for  mostly  by  subscriptions  from 
the  Navy. 


MONUMENTS    AXD    STATUES.  201 

There  is  a  bronze  group  east  of  the  Capitol  representing 
Emancipation,  with  Abraham  Lincoln  holding  the  proclama- 
tion over  a  negro  whose  shackles  are  broken.  The  entire  work 
was  paid  for  by  ex-slaves.  In  front  of  the  District  Court  House  is 
another  statue  of  Lincoln.  Among  the  equestrian  statues  are 
those  of  General  Jackson,  Lieutenant-General  Scott,  General 
Washington,  Gen.  Nathaniel  Greene,  General  McPherson,  and 
Gen.  George  II.  Thomas. 

Another  notable  piece  of  commemorative  masonry  is  the 
immense  pedestal  and  statue  in  New  York  Harbor.  This,  the 
gift  of  M.  Bartholdi  to  the  United  States,  represents  "  Liberty 
Enlightening  the  World."  A  giant  figure  of  the  Goddess 
of  Liberty,  holding  aloft  the  torch  of  liberty,  rests  upon  a  pedes- 
tal 91  feet  in  height,  and  52  feet  10  inches  at  the  base.  The 
mammoth  electric  light  held  in  the  hand  of  the  giantess  is  305 
feet  above  tide-water.  The  height  of  the  figure  is  152|-  feet. 
Forty  persons  can  find  'standing-room  within  the  mighty  head, 
which  is  14^-  feet  in  diameter.  A  six-foot  man  standing  on  the 
lower  lip  could  hardly  reach  the  eyes.  The  index  finger  is  8  feet 
in  length,  and  the  nose  3f  feet.  The  Colossus  of  Rhodes  was  a 
pigmy  compared  with  this  nineteenth  century  .Avonder.  Eight 
years  were  occupied  in  the  construction  of  this  gigantic  brazen 
image.  Its  weight  is  440,000  pounds,  of  which  146,000  pounds 
are  copper,  the  remainder  iron  and  steel.  The  major  part  of  the 
iron  and  steel  was  used  in  constructing  the  skeleton  framework 
for  the  inside. 

The  Bunker  Hill  Monument,  at  Charlestown,  Mass.,  is  221  feet 
in  height,  and  built  of  granite.  It  stands  on  a  hill  in  the  centre 
of  a  park,  and  from  its  apex,  which  is  reached  by  a  stairway 
inside,  commands  an  exquisite  view  of  Boston'js  picturesque 
suburban  country.  Near  the  base  is  a  fine  bronze  statue  of 
Colonel  Prescott,  who  commanded  the  patriots  at  the  battle 
against  the  British  in  1775.  Boston's  other  notable  memorials  are 
statues  of  Franklin,  Josiah  Quincy,  William  Lloyd  Garrison, 
Lincoln,  Sumner,  Everett,  Lief  Ericsson,  the  Norse  explorer, 
Webster,  John  Harvard  (at  Cambridge),  a  fine  Soldiers'  and 
Sailors'  Monument  on  the  Common,  and  a  monument  to  Crispus 
Attucks,  a  negro,  the  first  man  killed  in  the  War  of  the  Revolu- 
tion. At  Concord,  Mass.,  is  a  statue  of  the  Minute  Man. 

Monumental  City  is  a  title  most  aptly  applied  to  Baltimore 
because  of  its  many  handsome  monuments.  The  Washington 
Monument  was  begun  in  1816  and  finished  in  1830.  The  column 
is  of  Maryland  marble,  180  feet  high,  and  is  crowned  by  a  statue 
of  our  first  President.  Battle  Monument  is  of  marble,  and  is  in 
the  form  of  a  small  Egyptian  temple,  supporting  a  colossal  fasces ; 


202 


MONUMENTS    AND    STATUES. 


on  this  is  a  statue  representing  the  city  of  Baltimore.  This 
monument  was  erected  to  commemorate  the  Baltimoreans  who 
were  killed  while  defending  their  city  against  the  British  in  1814. 
In  Baltimore,  also,  is  the  Odd  Fellows  (or  Wildey)  Monument; 
the  memorial  to  James  L.  Ridgley,  Grand  Secretary  of  the 
I.  O.  O.  F.  from  1840  to  1881,  and  the  McDonogh  Statue.  The 


BUNKER  HILL   MONUMENT,   AT   CHARLESTOVVN,   MASS. 

Erected  to  commemorate  the  Battle  of  Bunker  Hill,  June  17, 1775. 

city  received,  in  1890,  a  bronze  statue  of  George  Peabody,  by 
W.  W.  Story.  There  is  a  statue  of  Chief  Justice  Taney  at  Mount 
Vernon  Place,  also  a  group  of  bronzes,  among  which  are 
"  Baryes,"  "  War,"  «  Peace,"  "  Order,"  and  «  Force,"  and  "  Mili- 
tary Courage,"  by  P.  Dubois.  Baltimore  also  has  a  monument  to 
Edgar  Allen  Poe.  The  State  erected  at  Annapolis,  Rinehart's 


MONUMENTS    AND    STATUES.  203 

colossal  sitting  bronze  statue  of  Roger  B.  Taney,  Chief  Justice  of 
the  United  States  from  1836  to  1846  ;  in  1886,  Congress  placed 
here  a  statue  of  Baron  de  Kalb,  who  was  mortally  wounded  at 
the  Battle  of  Camden,  while  commanding  the  Maryland  line.  At 
Antietam  are  the  monuments  (of  granite)  to  General  Reno,  and 
the  colossal  statue  to  the  soldier  dead,  in  the  National  Cemetery. 

Virginia's  Memorials  include  the  Monument  to  Unknown 
Dead,  at  Arlington,  a  large,  square  mausoleum-like  structure, 
with  inscriptions  on  the  side  ;  the  Yorktown  Monument,  which  has 
a  square  base  which  tapers  to  a  tall  spiral  column  ;  the  Washing- 
ton Monument,  at  Richmond,  which  has  a  round  flat  base  sur- 
mounted by  square  pillars,  with  a  bronze  figure  of  Washington 
on  a  large  charger  at  the  top,  and  the  Robert  E.  Lee  Monument, 
at  Richmond,  which  represents  General  Lee  on  horseback  at 
the  top  of  the  large  granite  pedestal,  with  six  erect  bronze  figures 
of  Virginia's  statesmen  standing  on  an  intermediate  base. 

New  York  City's  Statues  include  those  of  Horace  Greeley, 
at  the  entrance  of  the  Tribune  Building,  Lafayette,  Lincoln, 
Hamilton,  Shakespeare,  Burns,  Fitz-Greene  Halleck,  Mazzini, 
Schiller,  Humboldt,  General  Bolivar,  Columbus,  William  E. 
Dodge,  Farragut,  Franklin,  Garibaldi,  Nathan  Hale,  the  patriot  spy 
(to  be  erected  this  year  by  the  Sons  of  the  Revolution),  Irving, 
the  Martyr's  Monument,  in  Trinity  Churchyard,  in  memory  of 
Americans  who  died  in  British  prison  ships  in  the  Revolutionary 
War,  Thomas  Moore,  S.  F.  B.  Morse,  inventor  of  the  telegraph, 
Sir  Walter  Scott,  Washington  (two),  and  Webster.  The  Obe- 
lisk (Cleopatra's  Needle),  in  Central  Park,  seventy  feet  in  height, 
weighing  two  hundred  tons,  and  brought  from  Egypt  by  the 
United  States  Government  in  1877,  and  the  statue  of  a  soldier, 
erected  by  the  Seventh  Regiment  to  commemorate  its  dead  in  the 
Civil  War,  are  others  of  New  York's  interesting  collection.  At 
Tarrytown  is  a  statue  to  Major  Andre,  the  British  spy ;  it  was 
erected  by  Cyrus  W.  Field. 

Philadelphia's  fine  parks  contain  several  notable  memorials, 
the  principal  ones  being  monuments  to  Washington,  Lincoln, 
General  Meade,  Morton  McMichael,  Franklin,  Columbus,  the 
Penn  Treaty  Monument,  etc.  The  Soldiers'  National  Cemetery 
at  Gettysburg  is  the  site  of  numerous  memorials  of  the  brave 
soldiers  who  fell  in  the  memorable  Battle  of  Gettysburg,  July  1, 
2,  and  3,  1863.  Eighteen  States  are  here  represented  by  the 
graves  of  their  dead.  The  National  Monument,  erected  at 
government  expense,  is  of  gray  granite,  crowned  by  a  colossal 
marble  statue  of  the  Genius  of  Liberty,  and  surrounded  by 
marble  statues  of  War,  History,  Peace,  and  Plenty  It  was 
dedicated  by  President  Lincoln  the  year  after  the  battle.  Scores 


204 


MONUMENTS    AND    STATUES. 


of  other  monuments   commemorating  the  bravery  of  the  sons  of 
the  Keystone  State  in  the  Rebellion,  are  situated  in  the  centres  of 

population. 

The  Battle  Monument  at  Bennmgton,  commemorating  the 
Battle  of  Bennington,  is  built  of  magnesian  limestone.  The 
structure  is  301  feet  high  and  is  in  the  form  of  an  obelisk.  It 


CLEOPATRA'S  NEEDLE  AT  CENTRAL  PARK,  NEW  VORK. 

has  stairs  inside  and  windows  at  the  top.  At  Bennington  is  also 
the  Catamount  Monument,  the  figure  of  a  catamount  with  jaws 
open,  poising  as  if  for  a  spring.  At  Boone,  Ky.,  is  a  monument 
to  Daniel  Boone,  the  famous  Kentucky  hunter  and  warrior ;  at 
Chalmette,  La.,  the  Battle  Monument,  erected  in  memory  of 
Confederate  dead;  at  Spartansburg,  S.  C.,  the  Cowpens  Monu- 
ment, in  commemoration  of  the  Battle  of  the  Cowpens,  in  the 


MOREY    LETTER.  205 

War  of  the  Revolution ;  at  Fort  Ouster,  Mont.,  a  monument  to 
General  Custer  ;  at  Chicago,  111.,  a  monument  to  Stephen  A.  Doug- 
lass ;  at  Williamstown,  Mass.,  a  monument  commemorating  the 
origin,  at  that  place,  of  the  foreign  missions  movement ;  on  the 
boundary  line  between  California  and  what  was  originally  Mexi- 
can territory,  the  Mexican  Boundary  Monument;  at  Plymouth, 
Mass.,  a  handsome  monument  commemorating  the  landing  there 
of  the  Pilgrim  Forefathers ;  at  Watertown,  Mass.,  the  Norum- 
bega  Tower,  to  indicate  the  spot  where  the  Norumbegas  are 
supposed  to  have  erected  a  fortress  five  centuries  before  Colum- 
bus ;  at  Fort  Riley,  Kansas,  the  Ogden  Monument,  locating  what 
is  supposed  to  be  the  centre  of  the  Union ;  at  Duxbury,  Mass., 
a  monument  to  Miles  Standish ;  at  Schuylerville,  N.  Y.,  the 
Saratoga  Battle  Monument ;  at  San  Francisco,  the  Star  Spangled 
Banner  Monument ;  at  Sacramento,  Cal.,  a  statue  representing 
Columbus  before  Isabella,  and  another  of  Marshall,  who  dis- 
covered the  first  gold  in  California. 

Morey  Letter,  The. —  In  the  latter  part  of  the  Presidential 
campaign  of  1880  there  was  published  a  letter  purporting  to  have 
been  Avritten  by  the  Republican  candidate,  James  A.  Garfield,  to 
H.  L.  Mofey,  of  Lynn,  Mass.  In  this  letter,  the  signer  ex- 
pressed his  opposition  to  the  abrogation  of  the  Treaty  with 
China,  a  subject  at  the  time  which  was  causing  much  discussion 
on  account  of  the  "Chinese  cheap  labor"  agitation  on  the 
Pacific  coast.  The  sentiment  of  the  country  was  in  favor  of  the 
exclusion  of  the  laborers  of  the  Flowery  Kingdom.  The  writer 
also  expressed  sympathy  with  capital  in  its  strife  with  labor. 
Garfield  at  once  pronounced  the  letter  a  forgery.  The  hand- 
writing, however,  was  very  like  his,  and  the  Democratic  managers 
circulated  the  letter  far  and  Made.  An  investigation  revealed 
the  fact  that  there  was  no  such  person  as  H.  L.  Morey  in  Lynn, 
and  a  man  who  had  sworn  to  the  authenticity  of  the  letter  was 
convicted  of  forgery  and  sentenced  to  eight  years'  imprisonment. 

Morgan. —  "  A  good  enough  Morgan  "  is  a  phrase  which  origi- 
nated in  1826  from  the  political  strife  in  New  York  State,  in 
which  the  Masons  sought  to  gain  the  political  power.  Morgan  was 
a  prominent  Mason  who  disappeared,  and  was  supposed  to  have 
been  murdered  by  the  opposition.  A  dead  body  supposed  to  be 
his  was  referred  to  by  Thurlow  Weed  as  "a  good  enough  Morgan 
until  after  the  election." 

Morrill  Tariff.     (See  Tariffs  of  the  United  States.) 

Mortality  in  the  United  States.  —  In  the  year  1890  the 
total  number  of  deaths  in  the  United  States,  as  computed  by  the 
Census  Bureau,  was  872,944,  of  which  596,055  were  of  native- 


206 


MOTTOES    OF    STATES    AND    TERRITORIES. 


born  persons,  140,875  of  foreign-born  persons,  and  114,313  of 
colored  persons.  The  total  number  of  deaths  of  children  under 
five  years  of  age  was  264,784,  of  which  41,911  were  of  colored 
children.  Of  the  total  number  of  deaths,  by  far  the  largest  pro- 
portion was  from  consumption,  which  was  the  cause  of  death  of 
101,645  persons;  pneumonia  was  the  cause  of  death  of  76,291 
persons ;  diarrhoeal  diseases,  of  74,576 ;  diphtheria  and  croup,  of 
41,536.  These  .were  the  four  chief  causes  of  death. 
Mottoes  of  States  and  Territories. 

Nicknames  of  States.     Nicknames  of  People  of  States. 
Nicknames  of  Cities. 

It  has  been  customary  with  the  founders  of  a  State  or  Terri- 
tory to  choose  a  motto  either  in  English,  or  Latin,  or  French,  or 
Italian,  or  Spanish,  expressive  of  its  destiny,  the  character  of  its 
people,  or  the  principles  of  its  political  faith.  These  mottoes  are 
stamped  upon  the  great  seals  of  the  several  States  and  Territories. 
Much  ingenuity  in  their  invention  has  been  exercised.  The 
States  and  Territories  which  have  omitted  to  choose  a  motto  are 
Alaska,  Indiana,  Indian  Territory,  Mississippi,  New  Hampshire, 
New  Jersey,  North  Carolina,  Texas,  and  Utah.  The  mottoes  of 
the  others,  with  their  translations,  are  as  follows  : — 


Alabama 

Arizona 

Arkansas 

California 

Colorado 

Connecticut 

Delaware 

District  of  Columbia 

Florida 

Georgia 

Idaho  

Illinois 


Iowa 

Kansas 

Kentucky . 

Louisiana . 

Maine 

Maryland. . 


Massachusetts. 
Michigan 


Minnesota. 
Missouri . . . 


Montana . 


Here  we  rest 

Sitat  Deus 

Mercy,  justice.   Regnatpopuli 
Eurek; 


Nil  sine  nuinine 

Qui  transtulit  sustinet 

Liberty  and  Independence. 

Justitia  omnibus 

In  God  is  our  trust. 

AVisdom,  justice,  moderation. 

Salve  

National  Union,  State  Sover- 
eignty. 

Our  liberties  we  prize  and  our 
rights  we  will  maintain. 

Ad  astra  per  aspera 

United  we  stand,  divided  we 

fall. 
Union,  justice,  and  confidence. 

Dirigo    

Fatti  maschii,  parole  feniine. . 

[Also  "  Crescite  et  mnltipli- 

cainini." 

Ense  petit  placidam  sub  liber- 

tate  quietem  

Si   quaeris   peninsulam  amse- 

nam  circumspice 

L'etoile  du  nord 

Salus  populi  supremalex  esto. 
United  we  stand,  divided  we 

fall. 
Oro  y  plata 


Founded  by  God. 

The  people  rule. 

I  have  found  it. 

Nothing  without  God. 

He  who  transplanted,  sustains 

Justice  to  all. 


Hail. 


To  the  stars  through  all  diffi- 
culties. 


I  direct. 

Deeds  are  manly,  words  wo- 
manly. 

Increase  and  multiply. 

With   the    sword     she    seeks 

quiet  peace  under  liberty. 
If   thpu   seekest   a   beautiful 

peninsula,  behold  it. 
The  Star  of  the  North. 
The  welfare  of  the  people  is 

the  supreme  law. 

Gold  and  silver. 


MOTTOES    OF    STATES    AND    TERRITORIES. 


207 


Nevada  

New  Mexico  

Crescit  eundo  

It  increases  by  going 

New  York  

Excelsior  

Higher,  more  elevated 

North  Carolina  

None 

North  Dakota.  .  . 

Ohio  

separable  now  and  forever. 
Iinperium  in  iiuperio 

Oregon  

Alis  volat  propriis  

She  flies  with  her  own  wings 

Pennsylvania  

Rhode  Island  

dence. 
Hope 

South  Carolina   

Ani  1  1  iis  opibusque  parati  

1  1  :  1  1  1  1  spiro  spero     Spes   

ces  ;  ready  to  give  life  and 
property. 
While  I  breathe,  I  hope    Hope 

South  Dakota  

Under  God  the  people  rule 

Tennessee  ... 

Agriculture,  Commerce. 

Vermont  

Freedom  and  unity 

Virginia  

Sic  semper  tyrannis  

Ever  so  to  tyrants 

Perseverando  

Washington    

Al-Ki  

West  Virginia  

Obverse:      Montani      semper 

Mountaineers  are  always  free- 

liberi   

men. 

Wisconsin  

Reverse:  Libertas  et  fldelitas.. 
Forward 

Liberty  and  fidelity. 

Wyoming  

Cedant  arma  togae  

Let  arms  yield  to  the  gown 

Nicknames  of  the  States. —  Most  suggestive  is  the  con- 
trast between  the  inspiring  and  dignified  character  of  State 
mottoes,  and  the  playful  and  sometimes  derisive  nicknames  of  the 
States  and  their  inhabitants.  These  nicknames  multiply  year  by 
year,  the  old  ones  giving  place  in  popular  usage  to  the  later  ones. 
The  following  is  a  list  corrected  up  to  date:  Alabama,  Cotton 
State;  Arizona,  Sunset  Land,  Apache  State  ;  Arkansas,  Bear 
State  (owing  to  its  many  bears  in  early  times) ;  California, 
Land  of  Gold,  Golden  State,  El  Dorado,  Eureka  State;  Col- 
orado, Centennial  State  (because  admitted  in  1876),  Silver 
State,  Buffalo  Plains  State  (now  extinct);  Connecticut,  Land 
of  Steady  Habits,  Freestone  State,  Nutmeg  State  (because  pack 
pedlers  from  Connecticut  used  to  sell  wooden  nutmegs  as  genuine 
articles) ;  Delaware,  Blue  Hen  State  (because  Captain  Cald- 
well  insisted  that  no  good  game  cock  came  from  other  than  a  blue 
hen),  Uncle  Sam's  Pocket  Handkerchief ;  Florida,  Everglade 
State,  Flowery  State,  Peninsular  State;  Georgia,  Empire  State 
of  the  South;  Idaho,  Gem  of  the  Mountains ;  Illinois,  Prairie 
State,  Sucker  State  (originating  from  an  old  miner's  comparison 
of  the  miners,  who  deserted  the  Galena  mines,  with  suckers) ; 
Indiana,  Hoosier  State  (a  corruption  of  "  husher,"  meaning  an 
Indian  fighter  who  could  "  hush  one  to  sleep");  Iowa,  Hawk- 
eye  State  (Hawk-eye  was  the  popular  name  of  an  Indian  Chief 
whose  tribal  name  was  Black  Hawk) ;  Kansas,  Garden  of  the 
West  (on  account  of  its  productiveness),  Sunflower  State  (on 
account  of  its  abundant  sunflowers)  ;  Kentucky,  Blue-Grass 
State,  Corn -Cracker  State  (because  the  poor  whites  use  cracked 


20S  MOTTOES    OB1    STATES    AND    TERRITORIES. 

corn   as   an  article    of   food),   Dark   and   Bloody   Ground,    and 
River  of  Blood  (on   account  of   its  battles    with  the    savages); 
Lpuisianaj    Pelican  State,   Creole  State;    Maine,   Pine-Tree 
State,    Old   Dirigo    (on   account   of    its   motto),  Timber   State, 
Lumber  State;    Maryland,  Monumental  State   (on  account  of 
its  numerous  monuments),  Old  Line  State  (an  allusion  to  Mason 
and    Dixon's    line),    Cockade    State ;     Massachusetts,    Old 
Colony,   Bay   State,   Old   Bay  State ;     Michigan,    Wolverine 
State '(on  account  of  its  wolves),  Lake   State   (it  is  bounded  by 
four   of    the   Great   Lakes)  ;     Minnesota,    North   Star    State 
(from  its  motto),  Gopher  State  (because  it  is  "  honey  combed  " 
with  animals  inhabiting  its  soil.    Gopher  is  a  corruption  of  French 
Gaitfre,  honey-combed),  Lake  State  (it  has  thousands  of  interior 
lakes),   Peninsula    State;     Mississippi,    Eagle    State,    Border 
Eagle  State,  Bayou  State  ;    Missouri,   Puke   State   (owing  to 
the  vast  exodus  to  the  Galena  lead  mines  in  1827),  Iron-Moun- 
tain State,  Bullion   State,  Pennsylvania  of    the  West;    Mon- 
tana, Bonanza  State  (on  account  of  its  mining  wealth),  Stubtoe 
State;    Nebraska,   Antelope   State,  Black-water    State   (from 
the  color  of  the  water  of  its  sti-eams) ;    Nevada,  Silver  State, 
Sage-Brush  State,  Battle-born  State  (because  admitted  during  the 
Civil   War)  ;    New   Hampshire,   Granite    State,   Switzerland 
of  America;    New  Jersey,  Garden  State  (.owing  to  its  truck- 
gardens),  Blue    State,    New    Spain    (because   Joseph,    King   of 
Spain  and  brother  of  Napoleon  Bonaparte,   settled  in  it  after 
Napoleon's  downfall,  having  secured  a  special  act  from  the  legis- 
lature  allowing   him   to   hold  property   in    the    State)  ;     New 
Mexico,  Sunshine  State;    New  York,  Empire  State,  Excel- 
sior  State ;    North    Carolina,   old   North    State,    Turpentine 
State    (turpentine   is   a   chief    production) ;     North    Dakota, 
Sioux   State,  Land   of   the  Dakotas,  Flickertail;    Ohio,   Buck- 
Eye  State   (from  the  buck-eye  trees)  ;   Oklahoma,  Boomer's 
Paradise;    Oregon,    Web  Foot    (because    of    the   humid   cli- 
mate  which   is  specially   adapted   to  animals  having   webfeet), 
Beaver   State,    Sunset    State,   Pacific    State;    Pennsylvania, 
Keystone  State    (because  its  representative    was  the   thirteenth 
voter   in    favor   of    signing   the    Declaration    of    Independence 
and    thereby    placed    the    key-stone   in  the    arch    of    liberty), 
Iron  and  Oil  State;    Rhode  Island,  Little  Khody,  Plantation 
State;  South  Carolina,  Palmetto  State  (a  palmetto  tree  is  on 
the    State   Arms);    South   Dakota,  Swiagecat;   Tennessee, 
Volunteer  State   (because  it  sent  many  volunteers  to  the  War 
of  1812),  Hog  and  Hominy  State,  Lions'  Den  State,  Mother  of 
Southwestern    Statesmen     (having     given     three     Presidents)  ; 
Texas,  Lone  Star  State  (the  flag  had  one  star  before  the  State 


MOTTOKS    OF    STATES    A^D    TERKlf  ORtES. 


f>09 


was  admitted)  ;  Utah,  Mormon  State,  Inter-Mountain  Territory, 
Desert  (so  called  by  the  Mormons)  ;  Vermont,  Green  Moun- 
tain State;  Virginia,  Mother  of  Presidents,  Old  Dominion, 
Mother  of  States  (because 
of  its  once  extensive  domain 
out  of  which  several  States 
were  made);  Washing- 
ton, Evergreen  State,  Chi- 
nook; West  Virginia, 
Panhandle  State,  Switzer- 
land of  America,  Mountain 
State;  Wisconsin,  Badger 
State  (from  a  badger  on  its 
coat  of  arms),  Copper  State  ; 
Wyoming,  Equality  State 
(because  women  have  equal 
suffrage  with  men). 

Nicknames  of  the 
People  of  States. —  The 
nicknames  of  the  people  of 
States  are  the  inventions,  as 
:•,  rule,  of  the  inhabitants  of 
c  ontiguous  States, .  and  for 
this  reason  are  not  always 
complimentary.  They  are 
even  more  graphic  than  the 
nicknames  of  the  States. 
They  are  as  follows  :  Ala- 
bama, Lizards  (the  streams 
of  Alabama  are  full  of  them) ; 
Arkansas  (an  allusion  to 
the  bowie-knife  which  in 
pioneer  days  all  self-respect- 
ing citizens  carried  on  their 
persons) ;  California,  Gold 
Hunters;  Colorado,  Hovers 
(because  the  early  settlers 
used  to  move  from  place  to 
place  prospecting),  Pike's 
Peakers  (after  Colorado's 
celebrated  mountain  peak)  ;  BARTHOLDI'S  STATUE  OF  LIBERTY,  NEW 
Connecticut,  Nutmeggers;  YOKK  J^^a(^^sma!m 
Delaware,  Blue  Hen's 

Chickens  (derived  from  the  nickname  of  Colonel  Caldwell's  regi- 
ment of  troops  in  the  Revolution.     See  Nicknames  of  States) ; 


210  MOTTOES    OF    STATES    AND    TERRITORIES. 

Dakota,  Squatters  (on  account  of  the  early  immigrants,  who 
"squatted"  on  the  land  waiting  for  the  "boom");  Florida, 
Fly-up-the-Creeks  (an  allusion  to  the  native  river-birds)  ; 
Georgia,  Buzzards  (there  is  a  State  law  making  it  a  mis- 
demeanor to  destroy  the  buzzard,  which  is  regarded  as  of 
value  in  the  purification  of  the  atmosphere)  ;  Idaho,  Fortune 
Hunters  (because  it  was  settled  by  people  who  regarded  it  as  an 
El  Dorado)  ;  Illinois,  Suckers  (applied  in  consequence  of  an 
allusion  to  the  people  of  a  certain  section  who  were  like  suckers 
in  that  they  go  "  up  river  in  spring,  spawn,  and  come  down 
again  in  the  fall");  Indiana,  Hoosiers;  Iowa,  Hawk-eyes; 
Kansas,  Jayhawkers  (the  Jayhawkers  were  a  sort  of  free-boot- 
ers.  The  name  was  first  used  by  a  local  Irishman,  who  said  the 
jayhawker  is  a  native  bird  in  the  Emerald  Isle,  which  preys  upon 
other  birds)  ;  Kentucky,  Corn  Crackers  (see  Nicknames  of 
States);  Louisiana,  Creoles;  Maine,  Foxes  (the  woods  of 
Maine  abound  with  foxes,  and  the  trapping  of  them  is  carried  on 
by  the  woodsmen)  ;  Maryland,  Clam  Hunters  (allusion  to  a 
thriving  native  industry) ;  Massachusetts,  Bean  Eaters  (no 
well-regulated  family  in  the  State  fails  to  eat  baked  beans  on 
Saturday  night  or  Sunday  morning) ;  Michigan,  Wolverines 
(from  the  abundance  of  wolves  in  her  forests);  Minnesota, 
Gophers  (see  Nicknames  of  States)  ;  Mississippi,  Tadpoles 
(the  State  was  once  part  of  the  French  domain  of  Louisiana, 
whose  inhabitants  were  known  as  Crapauds  (frogs).  The 
transition  from  frogs  to  tadpoles  was  an  easy  one)  ;  Missouri, 
Pukes  (see  Nicknames  of  States) ;  Nebraska,  Bug-Eaters  (so 
called  from  the  night-prowling  bat) ;  Nevada,  Sage  Hens  (so 
called  from  a  native  bird  which  feeds  on  the  sage-bushes) ;  New 
Hampshire,  Granite  Boys;  New  Jersey,  Clam  Catchers  (a 
considerable  part  of  the  coast  population  derives  a  living  catch- 
ing clams),  and  Jersey  Blues  (from  the  famous  blue  laws  of  the 
State  ;  New  Mexico,  Spanish  Indians  (from  the  native  In- 
dians who  spoke  Spanish,  which  they  acquired  from  the  Spanish 
missionaries  who  invaded  the  region  in  the  sixteenth  century,  and 
established  their  churches  in  the  midst  of  the  savages,  thousands 
of  whom  were  converted  to  Christianity) ;  New  York,  Knicker- 
bockers (the  word  was  the  invention  of  Washington  Irving,  his 
nom  de  plume,  in  a  series  of  papers  regarding  life  in  New  York, 
being  Diedrich  Knickerbocker)  ;  North  Carolina,  Tar  Heelers 
(a  playful  allusion  to  the  tar  industry  of  the  State  ;  the  clothing 
of  those  engaged  in  it  was  habitually  smeared  with  the  tar,  and 
when  they  went  into  battle,  it  was  said  that  they  would  stick)  ; 
Ohio,  Buck-Eyes  (see  Nicknames  of  States)  ;  Oregon,  Hard 
Cases  (because  of  the  rowdy  element  among  its  first  settlers), 


MOTTOES    OF    STATES    AXD    TERRITORIES. 


211 


also  Web-Feet  (see 
Pennanites  (that  is, 
also  Leather  Heads 
dustry  which  em- 
Carolina,  Sand- 
population  living  in 
the  fact  that  many 
backwoods,  where 
Butternuts  (from 
the  Civil  War)  ; 


Nicknames  of  States)  ;  Pennsylvania, 
followers  of  William  Penn), 
(on  account  of  the  leather  in- 
ploys  many  persons)  ;  South 
Killers  (because  of  the  large 
the  hills),  also  Weasels  (from 
of  the  inhabitants  live  in  the 
weasels  abound) ;  Tennessee, 
the  clothing  worn  by  its  troops  in 
Texas,  Beef -Heads  (an  allusion 


OLD    STATE    HOUSE,     BOSTON. 


to  the  cattle  industry  of  the  State);  Utah,  Polygamists;  Ver- 
mont, Green    Mountain   Boys;  Virginia,    Beadles  (the   early 


212  MULLIGAN   LETTERS. 

colonial  courts  had  beadles);  West  Virginia,  Pan-handlers 
(owing  to  the  peculiar  shape  of  the  State)  ;  Wisconsin,  Badgers 
(see  Nicknames  of  States). 

Nicknames  of  Cities.  —  The  nicknames  of  cities  in  the 
United  States  are  no  less  original  than  are  those  of  the  people  of 
States.  They  are  so  characteristic  that  no  explanation  is  needed. 
Albany,  Edinburgh  of  America ;  Allegheny,  Twin  City ;  At- 
lanta, Gate  City  of  the  South;  Baltimore,  Monumental  City; 
Bangor,  Lumber  City;  Boston,  The  Hub,  Modern  Athens, 
City  of  Notions;  Brooklyn,  City  of  Homes,  Churches ;  Buffalo, 
Queen  Gty  of  the  Lakes;  Burlington,  Iowa,  Orchard  City; 
Charleston,  City  of  the  Earthquake,  Palmetto  City  ;  Chicago, 
Garden  City,  Prairie  City,  Windy  City;  Cincinnati,  Queen  of 
the  West,  and  Porkopolis ;  Cleveland,  Forest  City  ;  Denver, 
City  of  the  Plains;  Detroit,  City  of  the  Straits;  Hartford,  In- 
surance City;  Harrisburg,  Pivotal  City;  Indianapolis,  Rail- 
road City;  Keokuk,  Gate  City;  Lafayette,  Star  City; 
Leavenworth,  Cottonwood  City;  Louisville,  Falls  City; 
Lowell,  City  of  Spindles ;  Milwaukee,  Cream  City,  City  of 
Beer  and  Bricks;  Minneapolis,  City  of  Flour  and  Sawdust; 
Nashville,  Rock  City;  New  Haven,  Elm  City;  New  Or- 
leans, Crescent  City;  New  York,  Empire  City,  Gotham,  and 
Metropolis  of  America;  Philadelphia,  City  of  Brotherly  Love, 
City  of  Penn,  Quaker  City,  and  Centennial  City ;  Pittsburgh,  Iron 
City  and  Smoky  City ;  Portland,  Me.,  Forest  City  and  Hill 
City;  Providence,  Ro'ger  Williams'  City  ;  Raleigh,  Oak  City; 
Richmond,  Cockade  City,  and  Modern  Rome ;  Rochester, 
Aqueduct  City  and  Flour  City;  Sacramento,  Miner's  Pocket- 
book;  Salt  Lake  City,  Mormon  City;  San  Francisco, 
Golden  Gate,  and  Frisco;  St.  Louis,  Mound  City ;  St.  Paul, 
Gem  City  and  North  Star  City ;  Savannah,  Forest  City  of  the 
South;  Vicksburg,  Key  City;  Washington,  City  of  Mag- 
nificent Distances  and  Federal  City  ;  Waterbury,  Brass  City. 

•  Mugwump. — •  This  oft-quoted  word  is  of  Indian  origin,  and 
was  used  in  Connecticut  to  designate  a  great  man,  a  chief,  or 
duke.  It  is  found  in  Eliot's  Indian  Bible,  as  Mukquomp,  and 
in  the  gospel  of  Matthew,  and  also  in  Genesis.  It  was  first  used 
in  recent  years  by  the  Indianapolis  Sentinel,  in  1872.  In  the 
presidential  campaign  of  1884,  the  New  York  Sun  applied  the 
word  to  those  Republicans  who  refused  to  vote  for  James  G. 
Blaine. 

Mulligan  Letters,  The.  —  The  correspondence  between 
Warren  Fisher,  of  Boston,  and  James  G.  Blaine,  which  played  so 
prominent  a  part  in  the  Cleveland-Blaine  campaign  in  1884,  was 


NATIONAL   BANKS.  213 

known  as  the  Mulligan  letters  because  they  were  first  described  by 
James  Mulligan  before  an  Investigating  Committee  of  Congress 
in  1876.  Mulligan  was  Fisher's  private  secretary.  In  his  testi- 
mony before  the  committee  he  charged  Mr.  Elaine  with  having 
stolen  the  letters  from  him  under  a  promise  to  return  them  after 
having  been  allowed  to  read  them,  in  order,  as  he  said,  to  refresh 
his  memory  regarding  them.  *'  Burn  this  letter,"  "  I  do  not  feel 
that  I  shall  prove  a  deadhead  in  this  enterprise,"  and  "  An  anchor 
to  windward  "  all  occur  in  this  correspondence.  (See  Sayings  of 
Famous  Americans.) 

Mlircheson  Letter.     (See  Sackville  Incident.) 
My  Country,  'Tis  Of  Thee.      (See  Songs  of  the  Nation.) 
Napoleon   Of   Protection.        (See    Nicknames    of    Famous 
Americans.) 

Natick  Cobbler.     (See  Nicknames  of  Famous  Americans.) 
Nationalists.      (See  Political  Parties.) 
National  Bank  Act.     (See  National  Banks.) 
National  Banks. 

National  Bank  Act.  Savings  Banks. 

Organization.  Deposits. 

The  national  banks  originated  out  of  the  financial  embarrass- 
ment which  confronted  the  government  in  its  effort  to  carry  on 
the  Civil  War.  In  order  to  raise  the  revenue  necessary  for  the 
maintenance  of  the  Army  and  Navy,  the  establishment  of  national 
banks  was  suggested.  These  banks  were  to  be  organized  to  issue 
banknotes,  secured  by  United  States  bonds  deposited  with  the 
Secretary  of  the  Treasury.  The  proposition  was  outlined  by  the 
Secretaiy  of  the  Treasury,  Salmon  P.  Chase,  in  a  report  to  Con- 
gress in  1861.  He  argued  that  by  this  system  the  government 
could  easily  obtain  loans,  that  there  would  be  established  a  uni- 
form currency,  and  that  there  would  be  a  community  of  interests 
between  the  government  and  the  financial  institutions  of  the 
country.  It  was  not  until  February,  1863,  that  the  National 
Bank  Act,  having  been  passed  by  Congress,  was  signed  by  the 
President.  This  act  provided  for  the  organization  of  national 
banks,  by  at  least  five  persons  for  each  bank.  All  the  capital 
stock  was  to  be  paid  up  in  full.  The  circulation  should  not  ex- 
ceed ninety  per  cent,  of  the  market  value  of  the  government 
bonds  deposited  in  the  Treasury,  and  should  not  exceed  ninety 
per  cent,  of  the  par  value.  The  circulation  of  the  banks  was  to 
be  guaranteed  by  the  Secretary  of  the  Treasury,  and  first  liens 
on  the  assets  of  the  banks  were  vested  in  the  government,  to 


214 


NATIONAL    BANKS. 


cover  any  possible  deficit  which  the  bonds  deposited  might  not 
make  good.  By  the  terms  of  the  act,  the  circulation  was  limited 
to  $300,000,000,  but  in  1875  all  restrictions  on  circulation  were 
abolished.  Banks  could  not  organize  with  a  Capital  Stock  of  less 
than  $50,000  in  towns  having  less  than  six  thousand  inhabitants. 
In  towns  of  more  inhabitants,  the  minimum  of  capital  was  placed 
at  $100,000,  and  in  cities  of  fifty  thousand  inhabitants  the  mini- 
mum was  put  at  $200,000  capital. 

State  banks  were  allowed  to  be  converted  into  national  banks, 
but  only  a  few  banks  were  so  converted 
until  1865,  when  the  act  was  passed 
which  placed  the  tax  of  ten  per  cent,  on 
notes  of  State  banks  or  of  individuals 
which  were  used  as  circulation  or  paid 
out  by  them.  In  July,  1864,  there  were 
467  national  banks ;  a  year  later  there 
were  1,294.  The  national  banks  are 
under  control  of  National  Bank  Ex- 
aminers who  are  supposed  to  exercise 
over  them  a  strict  supervision  and  to 
make  thorough  examination  of  the  banks 
at  intervals.  The  national  banks  are 
taxed  one  per  cent,  on  their  circulation, 
and  one  half  of  one  per  cent,  on  their 
deposits,  besides  having  to  pay  a  State 
tax.  They  are  restricted  from  making 
loans  on  real  estate,  or  on  their  own 
notes,  or  on  their  own  stock,  or  on  legal 
tender  notes,  or  to  any  one  person  or 
concern  to  the  extent  of  more  than  one 
tenth  of  their  capital  stock.  In  1891, 
there  Were  3,577  national  banks,  with  a 
total  capital  of  $660,108,261,  a  surplus 
of  $222,766,668,  dividends  paid  in  that 
year  of  $50,795,011,  and  total  net  earnings  of  $75,763,614.  The 
number  of  banks  had  steadily  increased  year  by  year;  in  1875 
the  number  was  2,047.  On  November  1,  1891,  the  banks  held 
$346,681,016  in  legal  tender  notes,  $15,282,625  of  fractional 
currency,  and  $172,184,558  of  notes  of  other  national  banks,  in- 
cluding gold  notes. 

Saving  Banks. —  The  first  savings  bank  in  this  country  was 
the  Philadelphia  Savings  Fund  Society,  which  opened  for  the 
reception  of  deposits  in  1816.  By  the  last  report  issued  by  the 
Comptroller  of  the  United  States  Treasury,  1889-90,  it  appeared 
that  there  were  921  savings  banks,  holding  deposits  to  the 


NATIONAL  PARK  BANK,  NEW 
YORK. 


NATIONAL    COMMITTEE. 


215 


amount  of  $1,524,844,506,  deposited  by  4,258,623  persons.  The 
average  deposit  was  $358.04.  The  State  having  the  largest 
deposits  was  New  York,  which  is  the  most  populous  State,  and 
which  had  8550,066,657,  and  1,420,097  depositors.  Massachu- 
setts, which  is  sixth  in  population,  was  second  in  the  amount  of 
its  deposits,  having  $332,723,688  and  1,029,694  depositors.  Con- 
necticut, the  twenty-ninth  State  in  population,  was  third  in  the 
amount  of  its  deposits,  having  $110,370,962  and  294,896  deposi- 
tors. The  largest  average  to  each  depositor  was  in  California, 
where  the  average  was  $787.74.  California  was  fourth  in  the 
amount  of  its  deposits,  having  $98,442,007.  Both  in  the  number 
of  their  depositors  and  in  the  amount  of  deposits,  the  savings 
banks  of  the  United  States  lead  those  of  any  other  country, 
proving  that  the  Americans  are  the  thriftiest  people  in  the  world. 
Great  Britain  has  deposits  of  $536,000,000  and  3,715,000  deposi- 
tors; France,  $559,000,000  deposits  and  4,150,000  depositors; 
Austria,  $613,000,000  deposits  and  1,850,000  depositors,  etc. 

National  Cemeteries.     (See  Army  United  States.) 

National  Committee,  The.  —  The  National  Committee  of 
a  great  political  party  takes  charge  of  the  candidate  as  soon  as 
he  has  been  nominated,  and 
from  that  time  until  the  returns 
from  all  the  States  are  received, 
his  movements  are  subject  to 
its  control.  It  is  generally  the 
case  that  the  candidate's  nomi- 
nation has  been  anticipated,  so 
that  the  committee  is  able  to 
map  out  beforehand  the  plan 
of  the  campaign,  determining 
both  what  the  policy  of  the 
campaign  will  be,  but  also  in 
what  States  the  aggressive 
work  must  be  done.  One  of 
the  first  duties  of  the  commit- 
tee is  the  publication  of  a  campaign  life  of  the  candidate,  which 
must  have  an  individuality  which  will  appeal  to  the  imagination 
of  the  voter.  The  voter  likes  nothing  so  well  as  to  read  the 
intimate  personal  history  of  the  candidate  from  childhood  up. 
To  this  end  the  candidate  himself,  and  his  relatives  and  friends, 
give  to  the  biographer  all  information  which  will  picture  the 
candidate  in  every  phase  of  his  private  and  public  career  (not 
excepting  the  members  of  his  family),  in  a  favorable  light  before 
the  public  mind. 


PACIFIC    BANK,     SAN     FRANCISCO. 


216  NATIONAL    COMMITTEE. 

This  Personal  Element  of  presidential  campaigns  is  one  of 
the  results  of  democracy,  and  while  in  some  respects  it  may  not 
be  pleasing  to  the  nominee,  it  is  nevertheless  productive  of  a  bond 
of  human  sympathy  between  the  ruler  and  the  ruled,  which  in  a 
Republic  is  inseparable  from  its  perpetuity.  The  mapping  out  of 
a  campaign  by  the  committee  requires  qualities  of  leadership, 
which  while  differing  from  those  of  a  general  of  an  army,  are 
not  less  rare. 

Upon  the  Chairman  of  the  Committee  devolves  the  heavy 
work  of  the  campaign.  As  a  rule  he  gives  to  it  his  entire  time 
during  the  six  months  of  the  canvass.  He  has  at  his  beck  and 
call  a  number  of  lieutenants  ready  at  a  moment's  notice  for 
special  service.  He  keeps  posted  upon  the  strength  and  weak- 
ness of  his  own  and  the  rival  party,  not  only  in  the  doubtful 
States  themselves  but  in  each  of  their  cities  and  important  towns ; 
he  knows  their  leading  industries,  how  they  are  affected  by  the 
tariff  or  other  legislation,  and  the  attitude  of  their  business  men 
toward  this  or  that  bill  in  Congress  ;  he  is  familiar,  also,  with  the 
strife  of  factions  in  States  and  cities,  and  knows  the  leaders 
thereof,  and  one  of  his  chief  aims  is  to  unite  them  in  the  com- 
mon cause  before  election  day ;  he  consults  often  with  the 
editors  of  the  party  organs,  and  frequently  furnishes  them  with 
political  news  and  editorial  inspiration  ;  he  originates  schemes 
for  attacking  the  enemy,  and  having  at  his  command  a  large 
staff  of  writers  and  clerks,  he  can  print  and  distribute,  at  a  day's 
notice,  thousands  of  copies  of  a  campaign  document;  the  Publi- 
cation office  of  the  National  Committee  issues  in  the  course  of  a 
campaign,  political  matter  aggregating  several  million  copies, 
covering  a  variety  of  subjects  for  distribution  in  all  the  States. 
Such  work  as  this  is  all  done,  as  it  were,  behind  the  scene  ;  the 
public  sees  only  the  result.  Besides,  the  chairman  makes  dates 
for  the  candidate  to  speak,  and  works  up  through  lieutenants  in 
various  parts  of  the  country,  public  interest  in  his  coming ;  he 
raises  funds  for  the  expenses  of  the  campaign,  which  are  neces- 
sarily heavy  ;  he  selects  campaign  speakers,  instructing  them  re- 
garding the  issues  they  shall  lay  most  stress  upon,  and  those  upon 
which  they  must  touch  lightly  upon ;  he  must,  moreover,  seize 
any  political  straw  there  may  chance  to  be  in  the  air  affecting 
the  enemy's  intentions  and  turn  it  to  their  disadvantage.  The 
chairman  is  elected  by  the  members  of  the  Committee  from  the 
States,  there  being  one  member  from  each  State,  who  is  elected 
usually  by  the  delegate  to  the  National  Convention. 

The  Members  from  the  States  are  selected  from  the 
standpoint  of  their  political  power,  their  acquaintance  with  the 
politics  of  their  States,  and  their  political  sagacity.  Generally 


NATIONAL  COMMITTEE.  217 

speaking,  each  member  of  the  Committee  from  a  State  is  respon- 
sible for  his  State  on  election  day. 

The  Expenses  of  conducting  a  presidential  campaign  aggre- 
gate at  least  a  million  dollars.  This  money  is  spent  both  for 
legitimate  and  illegitimate  purposes.  The  equipment  of  political 
clubs  in  their  parades,  the  hiring  of  public  halls,  brass  bands,  and 
of  special  cars  for  the  candidate,  printing,  clerk-hire,  grand 
stands,  telegrams,  campaign  banners  and  flags,  fireworks,  deco- 
rations, "  missionary  "  work  by  emissaries  sent  out  on  one  errand 
or  another  — these  are  the  chief  items  of  a  legitimate  expense 
which  aggregates  a  large  sum.  There  is  also  popularly  supposed  to 
be  a  large  fund  reserved  for  use  on  election  day,  in  the  purchase 
of  votes  The  actual  extent  of  this  practice  is  probably  exag- 
gerated, although  it  cannot  be  questioned  that  it  exists  in  all  the 
doubtful  States.  "  Soap,"  applied  in  large  quantities  in  a  doubt- 
ful State,  has  always  been  regarded  as  an  important  factor  in 
carrying  the  election.  (See  "  Political  Slang.")  The  money  of 
the  National  Committee  is  raised  either  by  voluntaiy  or  solicited 
subscription.  Leaders  of  a  party  who  are  wealthy  are  expected, 
as  a  matter  of  course,  to  subscribe  large  sums,  and  also  manu- 
facturers and  others  whose  industries  are  benefited  by  legisla- 
tion originating  with  the  party's  leaders.  It  not  infrequently 
happens  that  this  money  is  solicited  on  the  eve  of  the  election, 
"  for  getting  out  the  vote,"  but  when  this  is  the  case,  the  sus- 
picion of  intended  corruption  is  always  aroused.  One  of  the 
advantages  claimed  for  the  Australian  Ballot  was  that  it  pre- 
vented corruption  and  intimidation  at  the  polls.  Under  the  old 
system  of  voting,  the  venal  voter  received  his  vote  from,  and 
deposited  it  in  plain  sight  of  the  vote  purchaser,  whereas  under 
the  new  system,  he  receives  his  ballot  only  from  an  official  source, 
and  marks  it  unobserved.  In  the  one  case,  the  corruptionist  sees 
the  "  goods,"  so  to  speak,  which  he  is  paying  for ;  in  the  other,  he 
has  no  means  of  knowing  whether  "  the  goods  are  delivered." 

The  members  of  the  Republican  National  Committee, 
headquarters  at  New  York  City,  are  :  Chairman,  James  S.  Clarkson; 
Treasurer,  William  G.  Barbour;  Secretary,  J.  S.  Fassett;  Mem- 
bers:—  Alabama,  William  Youngblood  ;  Arizona,  George  Christ; 
Arkansas,  Powell  Clayton  ;  California,  M.  II.  DeYoung;  Colorado, 
W.  A.  Hamill ;  Connecticut,  S.  Fessenden ;  Delaware,  D.  J. 
Layton ;  District  Columbia,  P.  H.  Carson ;  Florida,  John  K. 
Russell ;  Georgia,  F.  F.  Putney  ;  Idaho,  George  L.  Shoup ;  Illinois, 
W.  J.  Campbell ;  Indiana,  John  C.  New  ;  Iowa,  J.  S.  Clarkson; 
Kansas,  Cyrus  Leland,  Jr. ;  Kentucky,  William  O.  Bradley ; 
Louisiana,  P  B.  S.  Pinchback  ;  Maine,  J.  M.  Haynes  ;  Maryland, 
James  A.  Gary;  Massachusetts,  Henry  S.  Hyde  ;  Michigan,  John 


218  NATIONAL   COMMITTEB. 

P.  Sanborn ;  Minnesota,  Robert  G.  Evans ;  Mississippi,  James 
Hill ;  Missouri,  Chauncey  I.  Filley  ;  Montana,  Charles  8.  Warren  ; 
Nebraska,  W.  M.  Robinson  ;  Nevada,  E.  Williams  ;  New  Hamp- 
shire, Person  C.  Cheney;  New  Jersey,  G.  A.  Hobart ;  New 
Mexico,  W.  L.  Ryerson ;  New  York,  J.  S.  Fassett ;  North  Caro- 
lina, W.  P.  Canady ;  North  Dakota,  II.  C.  Hansbrough  ;  Ohio, 
A.  L.  Conger;  Oklahoma,  D.  T.  Flynn  ;  Oregon,  Jonathan  Bourne, 
Jr. ;  Pennsylvania,  M.  S.  Quay ;  Rhode  Island,  Thomas  W. 
Chace;  South  Carolina,  E.  M.  Bray  ton  ;  South  Dakota,  A.  C. 
Mellette ;  Tennessee,  W.  W.  Murray;  Texas,  N.  W.  Cuney ; 
Utah,  J.  R.  McBride;  Vermont,  G.  W.  Hooker;  Virginia,  James 
D.  Brady;  Washington,  T.  II.  Cavanaugh  ;  West  Virginia,  N.  B. 
Scott;  Wisconsin,  Henry  C.  Paine;  Wyoming,  J.  M.  Carey. 

The  Democratic  National  Committee  with  headquarters 
also  at  New  York  City  are  :  Chairman,  Calvin  S.  Brice ;  Treas- 
urer, Charles  J.  Canda;  Secretary,  S.  P.  Sheerin.  Members  :  Ala- 
bama, H.  D.  Clayton,  Jr. ;  Arizona,  J.  C.  Herndon ;  Arkansas,  S.  P. 
Hughes;  California,  M.  F.  Tarpey;  Colorado,  Chas.  S.  Thomas; 
Connecticut,  Carlos  French;  Delaware,  John  H.  Rodney ;  District 
of  Columbia,  William  Dickson ;  Florida,  Samuel  Pasco;  Georgia, 
John  H.  Estill;  Idaho,  John  W.  Jones;  Illinois,  E.  M.  Phelps; 
Indiana,  S.  P.  Sheerin;  Iowa,  J.  J.  Richardson;  Kansas,  C.  W. 
Blair ;  Kentucky,  Henry  Watterson  ;  Louisiana,  James  Jeffries ; 
Maine,  Arthur  Sewall ;  Maryland,  A.  P.  Gorman  ;  Massachusetts, 
Chas.  D.  Lewis;  Michigan,  O.  M.  Barnes;  Minnesota,  Michael 
Doran ;  Mississippi,  C.  A.  Johnston  ;  Missouri,  John  G.  Prather ; 
Montana,  A.  H.  Mitchell;  Nebraska,  James  E.  Boyd ;  Nevada, 
R.  P.  Keating;  New  Hampshire,  A.  W.  Sulloway;  New  Jersey, 
Miles  Ross:  New  Mexico,  Neill  B.  Field;  New  York,  W.  F. 
Sheehan ;  North  Carolina,  M.  W.  Ransom  ;  North  Dakota,  W. 
R.  Purcell ;  Ohio,  Calvin  S.  Brice  ;  Oregon,  A.  Noltner  ;  Penn- 
sylvania, Wm.  F.  Harrity ;  Rhode  Island,  Samuel  R.  Honey ; 
South  Carolina,  John  C.  Haskell;  South  Dakota,  Wm.  R.  Steele ; 
Tennessee,  R.  F.  Looney;  Texas,  O.  T.  Holt;  Utah,  Wm.  F. 
Ferry;  Vermont,  Hiram  Atkins;  Virginia,  John  S.  Barbour ; 
Washington,  J.  A.  Kuhn ;  West  Virginia,  Johnson  M.  Camden  ; 
Wisconsin,  John  L.  Mitchell;  Wyoming,  W.  L.  Kuykendall. 

National  Prohibition  Executive  Committee. — Chair- 
man, Samuel  Dickie,  Albion,  Mich.;  Secretary,  John  Lloyd 
Thomas,  32  East  14th  St.,  New  York  City;  Vice-chairman,  A.  A. 
Stevens,  Tyrone,  Penn.;  Treasurer,  S.  D.  Hastings,  Madison, 
Wis. ;  J.  B.  Hobbs,  Chicago  ;  Samuel  W.  Small,  Atlanta  ;  A.  J. 
Wolfenbarger,  Lincoln,  Neb.;  W.  D.  Wardwell,  75  New  St., 
New'York. 

National  Convention.     (See  How  the  President  is  Elected.) 


NAVY    OP    THE    UNITED    STATES.  219 

National  Democrat.     (See  Political  Parties.) 
National  Prohibitionists.     (See  Political  Parties.) 
National  Republican.     (See  Political  Parties.) 
Native  American.     (See  Political  Parties.) 
Naturalization.  —  The    renunciation    by    a   foreigner    of    a 
former  nationality  and  his  entrance  into  a  similar  relation  towards 
the  United  States  as  a  body  politic.     The  candidate  must  declare 
on  oath  his  intention  to  become  a  citizen,  two  years  at  least  after 
which  and  after  five  years  of  residence  he  may  get  his  papers  as 
a  citizen  in  full  of  the  United  States.    The  laws  of  the  States  admit 
a  man  to  citizenship  in  the  State  in  from  six  months  to  one  year; 
the   laws  of  cities  admit  a  man  to   citizenship  in    from  ten  to 
thirty  days. 

Naval  Academy  at  Annapolis.     (See  Navy,  United  States./ 
Naval  Militia.     (See  Navy,  United  States.) 
Navigation  on  the  Great  Lakes.     (See  Ship-Building.) 
Navigation,  Steam,  Stream.     (See  Ship-Building.) 
Navy  Department.     (See  Federal  Government.) 
Navy,  Great  Britain's.     (See  Navy,  United  States.) 
Navy,  New.     (See  Navy,  United  States.) 
Navy  Pay  Table.     (See  Navy,  United  States.) 
Navy,  The  United  States. 

Rear-Admirals.  New  Navy. 

Commodores.  Old  Navy. 

Salaries.  •  Naval  Academy. 

Navy  Yards.  Naval  Militia. 

Great  Britain's  Navy. 

There  is  at  the  present  time  no  officer  possessing  the  title  of 
admiral,  which  is  the  highest  possible  rank,  nor  is  the  title  of 
vice-admiral  held  by  an  officer.  There  are  at  present  six  Rear- 
Admirals,  and  two  commodores  acting  as  rear-admirals. 
They  are  Lewis  A.  Kimberly,  President  of  Board  of  Inspection  and 
Survey,  West  Newton,  Mass. ;  Bancroft  Gherardi,  Commanding 
North  Atlantic  Station,  Flag  Ship  Philadelphia;  George  E.  Belk- 
nap,  Commanding  Asiatic  Station,  Flag  Ship  Marion;  David  B. 
Harmony,  Commanding  Asiatic  Station,  Flag  Ship  Lancaster ; 
A.  E.  B.  Benham,  waiting  orders,  Brooklyn,  N.  Y.  ;  John  Irwin, 
Commandant  Navy  Yard,  Mare  Island,  Cal. ;  and  Acting  Rear- 
Admirals  John  G.  Walker,  Commanding  South  Atlantic  Station, 
Flag  Ship  Chicago,  and  George  Brown,  Commanding  Pacific 
Station,  Flag  Ship  San  Francisco.  There  are  thirty-three  rear- 


220 


NAVY    OF    THE    UNITED    STATES. 


admirals  on  the  retired  list.  The  salary  of  a  rear-admiral  is  $6,000 
at  sea,  $5,000  on  shore  duty,  and  $4,000  on  leave  or  waiting  orders. 
The  Commodores  are  James  A.  Greer,  Chairman  of  Light- 
House  Board,  Washington,  D.  C. ;  Aaron  W.  Weaver,  Comman- 
dant at  Navy  Yard,  Norfolk,  Va. ;  Wm.  P.  McCann,  President 
of  Examining  and  Retiring  Boards,  Washington,  D.  C. ;  James  H. 
Gillis,  waiting  orders,  Nutley,  N.  J. ;  Francis  M.  Ramsay,  Chief 
of  Bureau  of  Navigation,  Washington,  D.  C. ;  Joseph  S.  Skerrett, 
Commandant  at  Navy  Yard,  Washington,  D.  C. ;  Joseph  Fyffe, 


SHOULDER    STRAPS    OF    OFFICERS     OF    UNITED 
STATES    NAVY. 


No.  6. 


1.  Admiral. 

2.  Vice-Admiral. 

3.  Rear-Admiral . 

4.  Commodore. 

5.  Captain. 

6.  Commander      ( silver 

leaf). 

7.  Lieutenant  -  Comman- 

der (gold  leaf). 

8.  Lieutenant. 


Commandant  at  Naval  Station,  New  London,  Conn.;  Oscar  F. 
Stanton,  Governor  of  Naval  Home,  Philadelphia.  TJje  salary  of  a 
commodore  is  $5,000  at  sea,  $4,000  on  shore  duty,  and  $3,000 
on  leave  or  waiting  orders.  There  are  nine  commodores  on  the 
retired  list. 

The  Salaries  of  officers  other  than  admirals  and  commodores 
are  as  follows  :  — 


At  Sea. 

On  Shore 
Duty. 

On  Leave,  or 
Waiting 
Orders. 

Captain  

$4,500 

§3  500 

§2  800 

Commander  

3,500 

3,000 

2,300 

Lieutenant-Commander,  flrst  four  years  — 
Thereafter              .        ".  

2,800 
3,000 

2,400 
2  600 

2,000 
2  200 

Lieutenant,  first  four  years  

2,400 

2000 

1  600 

Thereafter  

2,600 

2  200 

1,800 

Lieutenant,  Junior  Grade,  first  four  years  . 
Thereafter  

1,800 
2  000 

1,500 
1  "00 

1,200 
1,400 

Knsign,  first  four  years  

1,200 

1,000 

800 

Thereafter  ....       

1,400 

1  200 

1,000 

Ensign  Junior  Grade  

1  000 

800 

600 

NAVY  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 


221 


The  navy  proper  has  eight  thousand  men.  The  pay  of  seamen 
is  $258  per  annum  ;  of  ordinary 'seamen  $210  per  annum.  The 
United  States  Marine  Corps  consists  of  a  force  of  two  thousand 
men.  Colonel  Charles  I  lay  ward  is  commandant. 

The  location  of  Navy  Yards  is  as  follows  :  — 

Brooklyn  Navy  Yard,  Brooklyn,  N.  Y. ;  Charlestown  Navy 
Yard,  Boston,  Mass. ;  Gosport  Navy  Yard,  near  Norfolk,  Va. ; 
Kittery  Navy  Yard,  opposite  Portsmouth,  N.  II. ;  League  Island 
Navy  Yard,  seven  miles  below  Philadelphia,  Pa. ;  Mare  Island 
Navy  Yard,  near  San  Francisco,  Cal. ;  New  London  Naval  Sta- 
tion, New  London,  Conn. ;  Pensacola  Navy  Yard,  Pensacola,  Fla. ; 
Washington  City  Navy  Yard,  Washington,  D.  C. ;  Norfolk  Navy 
Yard,  Norfolk,  Va.  There  are  naval  stations  at  New  London, 
Conn.,  Port  Royal,  S.  C.,  and  Key  West,  Fla.,  and  a  tor.pedo 
station  and  naval  war  college  at  Newport,  R.  I. 

New  Navy,  The. —  In  the  administration  of  President 
Cleveland  the  initial  steps  were  taken  in  the  construction  of  a 


THE    SQUADRON    OF    EVOLUTION. 


fleet  of  armored  cruisers  and  battle-ships,  upon  the  most 
approved  models.  The  naval  architects  of  the  country,  and  the 
builders  of  steel  and  iron  vessels  have  since  then  achieved  won- 
ders in  the  designing  and  building  of  a  practically  new  navy  for 
the  United  States.  Meanwhile  the  government  engineers  of 
ordnance  have  been  diligently  at  work  experimenting  with  new 
steel  armor  plates  and  with  new  large-sized  guns  as  fast  as  they 
have  been  cast.  Adopting  the  plan  of  foreign  nations,  the 
government  has  placed  in  operation  a  steel  armor  plant  of  its 
own,  and  has  conducted  numerous  tests  of  both  its  own  steel 
plates  and  of  those  produced  in  the  foundries  of  the  country. 

Since  Secretary  of  the  Navy  Whitney  awarded  the  contracts 
for  the  construction  of  the  new  navy,  sixteen  vessels,  including 
nine  cruisers,  four  gunboats,  two  torpedo  boats,  and  one  despatch 
boat  have  been  placed  in  commission.  These  are  the  protected 
cruisers  Chicago,  4,500  (the  figures  represent  displacement)^ 


222  NAVY    OF    THE    UNITED    STATES. 

Boston,  3,189,  Atlanta,  3,189,  Dolphin,  1,485,  Newark, 
4,083,  Charleston,  3,730,  Baltimore,  4,600,  San  Francisco, 
4,083,  and  Philadelphia,  4,324;  the  gunboats  Yorktown, 
1,700,  Concord,  1,700,  Bennington,  1,700,  and  Petrel, 
890  ;  the  torpedo-boats,  Stiletto,  31,  the  Gushing,  116,  the 
despatch-boat  Dolphin,  1,485,  and  the  dynamite  cruiser 
Vesuvius,  3,795.  The  latter  has  three  fifteen  inch  dyna- 
mite guns,  and  three  rapid-fire  guns,  and  has  a  tested  speed 
of  21.5  knots.  The  torpedo-boat  Stiletto  has  a  speed  of  eighteen 
knots ;  her  companion  torpedo-boat,  the  Gushing,  a  speed  of 
22.5  knots.  The  cruisers  have  a  speed  of  15.6  to  20.7  knots,  and 
from  twelve  to  twenty-nine  guns  each,  including  rapid-fire 
breech-loaders,  breech-loading  rifles,  Gatlings,  and  guns  of 
small  calibre. 

Besides  these  vessels  there  are  in  process  of  building  the  double- 
turreted  monitor  Miantonomah,  3,815,  the  first  armored  battle- 
ship to  fly  the  flag,  with  four  ten-inch  breech-loading  rifles 
which  are  second  to  none  in  the  world,  and  ten  other  rapid-fire 
guns ;  four  other  double-turreted  steel  monitors,  two  of  them 
mates  of  the  Miantonomah,  the  Puritan,  6,060,  Amphitrite, 
3,815,  Monadnock,  3,815,  and  Terror,  3,815,  with  armaments 
equally  formidable ;  the  battle-ship  Texas,  6,300,  with  two 
twelve-inch  guns,  six  six-inch  breech-loading  rapid-fire  guns,  and 

eight  other  rapid-fire  guns; 
the  armored  cruiser  Maine, 
6,648,  with  four  ten-inch 
guns,  six  six-inch  breech- 
loading  rapid-fire  guns,  and 
eight  other  rapid-fire  guns; 
the  coast-line  battle-ship 
Oregon,  10,298,  with  four 
thirteen -inch,  eight  eight- 
'inch,  four  six-inch  rapid-fire, 
breech-loading  guns,  and 
twenty-eight  rapid-fire  and 
machine  guns  ;  her  mates,  the 
Indiana,  10,298,  and  the 
Massachusetts,  10,298, 
each  to  cost  $4,000,000  ;  the 

protected  cruiser  Cincinnati,  3,893,  with  ten  four  inch  breech- 
loading  rapid-fire  guns,  two  rapid-fire  six-pounders,  two  rapid-fire 
three-pounders,  and  four  machine  guns ;  her  mate,  the  Raleigh  j 
the  Monterey,  4,000,  for  coast  defence,  with  two  twelve-inch, 
two  ten-inch  breech-loading  rapid-fire  guns,  six  six-pounders, 
four  three-pounders,  two  rapid-fire,  and  two  machine  guns  ;  the 


NAVY    OF    THE    UNITED    STATES.  223 

New  York,  8,150,  armored  cruiser,  with  six  eight-inch  and 
twelve  four-inch  breech-loading  rapid-fire  guns,  eight  six-inch 
rapid-fire  guns,  four  one-pounders,  and  four  machine  guns. 

Still  other  war  vessels,  protected  cruisers  Nos.  6,  9,  10,  11, 
and  13,  the  steel  practice  vessel,  the  harbor  defence  ram,  and  the 
gunboats  Nos.  5  and  6,  are  under  way.  Upwards  of  Fifty  Mil- 
lion Dollars  will  have  been  expended  upon  the  new  navy  by  the 
time  the  vessels  already  contracted  for  have  been  completed. 

In  addition  to  these  vessels,  there  are  also  to  be  included  in 
the  list  the  iron  vessels,  Ajax,  Comanche,  Canonicus,  Cats- 
kill,  Jason,  Lehigh,  Mahopac,  Manhattan,  Montauk, 
Nahant,  Nantucket,  Passaic,  Wyandotte,  which  are  all 
vessels  of  the  old  navy,  but  fitted,  so  far  as  is  possible  without 
entire  rebuilding,  with  modern  armament.  Their  speed  is  not 
above  six  knots.  Finally,  the  United  States  Navy  has  fifty-nine 
iron  and  wooden  sailing  and  steam  vessels,  of  which  thirty  are  in 
commission. 

Great  Britain's  Navy. —  A  comparison  of  the  navy  of  the 
United  States  with  that  of  Great  Britain  is  most  suggestive. 
Great  Britain  unquestionably  possesses  the  most  powerful  navy 
in  the  world ;  in  fact  with  the  vessels  now  in  process  of  construc- 
tion, she  could  probably  defeat  any  two  navies  that  could  be 
matched  against  her. 

The  Vessels  of  the  British  navy  may  be  tabulated  as  follows  : 

ARMORED. 

Battle-ships,  first  class 41 

Battle-ships,  second  class 12 

Coast  defence  vessels 10 

Armored  cruisers  12 

Torpedo  ram —  1 

TOTAL 76 

UN  ARMORED. 

( Protected 10 ) 

Ist-class  cruisers     <  Partially  protected 0 1 10 

(  Unprotected 0 ) 

( Protected 35 ) 

2d-class  cruisers      j  Partially  protected 4  > 49 

(  Unprotected 10 ) 

(Protected 19) 

3d-class  cruisers      j  Partially  protected 20 1 51 

(  Unprotected 12 ) 

Gunboats ' 53 

Torpedo  cruisers 33 

Sloops  of  war 26 

Torpedo  boats* 206 

Miscellaneous  craft 5 


TOTAL 433 


GRAND  TOTAL  509 

The  Naval  Academy  at  Annapolis,  Md.,  fits  picked  young 
men,  by  a  six  years'  course  of  study,  to  be  officers  in  the  Line 


224  NEBBASKA. 

and  Engineer  Corps  of  the  Navy,  and  in  the  Marine  Corps.  It 
was  founded  in  1845,  by  George  Bancroft,  then  Secretary  of 
the  Navy,  and  transferred  to  Newport,  R.  I.,  during  the  Seces- 
sion War.  Here  stand  the  Midshipmen's  Quarters,  Officers' 
Quarters,  Gunnery  Building,  Observatory,  Hospital,  Department 
of  Steam  Engineering,  and  Gymnasium.  The  library  contains 
18,000 'volumes,  and  many  trophies  and  flags,  and  portraits  of 
Farragut,  Porter,  Perry,  Decatur,  Preble,  and  other  naval  chief- 
tains. The  Academy  grounds  are  adorned  with  fine  old  trees, 
monuments  to  heroes  of  the  American  fleets,  and  trophy  cannon. 
There  are  fifty-seven  instructors  and  280  naval  cadets,  each  Con- 
gressional district  being  entitled  to  send  one  youth,  physically 
and  mentally  sound,  who  must  bind  himself  to  serve  eight  years 
(including  the  time  at  the  Academy)  in  the  United  States  Navy. 
Each  naval  cadet  receives  $500  a  year. 

Naval  Militia. —  In  Boston,  in  1889,  a  movement  was  started 
for  the  organization  of  a  naval  militia,  whose  members  should 
occupy  the  same  relation  to  the  United  States  Navy  as  that  of 
the  State  militia  to  the  United  States  Army.  It  was  argued  that 
in  the  event  of  a  foreign  war,  there  wrere  few  Amei'ican  sailors 
who  understood  the  working  of  batteries  on  warships,  or  who 
would  be  in  other  respects  available  for  service  on  board  a 
man-of-war.  The  result  of  this  movement  was  an  organization 
of  young  men,  of  Boston  and  the  suburban  towns,  into  a  naval 
militia  under  competent  officers.  They  were  encouraged  by 
Secretary  Tracy's  approval  of  the  plan,  and  finally  at  the  Secre- 
tary's instigation,  Congress,  in  1891,  appropriated  $25,000  to 
purchase  arms  for  the  militia,  to  be  expended  under  direction  of 
the  Secretary  of  the  Navy.  This  fund  is  not  distributed  directly 
to  the  States,  but  is  used,  under  supervision  of  the  Bureau  of 
Ordnance,  to  fill  requisitions  from  governors  for  arms  and  equip- 
ment. California  had  mustered  in  371  men,  New  York,  342, 
Massachusetts,  238,  North  Carolina,  101,  Rhode  Island,  54,  and 
Texas,  43;  total,  1,149.  The  men  are  drilled  in  summer  on 
board  men-of-war  furnished  by  the  government,  an'd  sham  battles, 
generally  on  the  islands  in  the  several  harbors,  are  fought. 
Thorough  instruction  in  all  the  duties  of  a  sailor  is  given. 

Nebraska. — The  State  was  settled  at  Bellevue,  in  1810,  by 
Americans ;  it  was  part  of  the  Louisiana  Purchase,  and  was  ad- 
mitted to  the  Union  in  1867.  It  is  a  region  of  unbroken  prairies 
and  rich  valleys,  watered  by  noble  rivers,  including  the  Missouri, 
which  forms  the  eastern  boundary  for  five  hundred  miles,  the 
Platte,  Elkhorn,  Loup,  Republican,  Niobrara,  and  numerous 
Other  rivers.  The  "  Bad  Lands  "  of  Dakota,  famous  for  their 


NEBRASKA. 


225 


GREAT     SEAL     OF    NEBRASKA. 


monstrous  weird-shaped  rocks  and  desolate  canons,  extend  into 
northern  Nebraska. 

The    Farm    Products  of  Nebraska,   which  is  essentially  an 

agricultural  State,  exceed  $16,000,- 
000  a  year ;  there  are  65,000  farms  of 
an  average  value  of  $10  an  acre. 
The  annual  product  of  cereals  in 
1889  was  270,000,000  bushels.  The 
beet-sugar  industry,  encouraged  by 
the  bounty  of  the  government  of  t\vo 
cents  a  pound,  is  attaining  extensive 
proportions. 

The  Livestock  of  the  State  are 
valued  at  $81,000,000  and  number 
4,700,000  head.  The  stock-farms 
are  among  the  best  in  the  country. 
The  manufactures  of  Nebraska,  in 
1890,  were  over  $20,000,000.  The  United  States  forts  are  Fort 
Omaha,  Fort  Sidney,  Fort  Niobrara,  Fort  Robinson,  and  the 
headquarters  of  the  Department  of  the  Platte  is  at  Omaha. 
There  are  several  reservations  and  agencies  for  Indian  tribes  in 
the  State,  and  schools  for  the  education  of  Indian  youths. 

The  Population  of  Nebraska  in  1880  was  452,402 ;  in  1890, 
it  was  1,056,193.  The 
real  property  was  valued 
at  $96,000,000  ;  the  per- 
sonal property  at  $64,- 
000,000 ;  the  farm  lands 
included  9, 9  4  4 ,  8  2  6 
acres,  valued  at  $105,- 
932,541  ;  the  farm  pro- 
ducts were  worth  $7,- 
708,914 ;  the  school 
attendance  was  159,692. 
There  were,  in  1890, 
5,295  miles  of  railroad, 
and  in  1892,  610  news- 
papers. 

The  largest  city  is  Omaha,  which  is  situated  on  a  plateau 
above  the  Missouri  River  with  a  population  in  1890  of  140,000 
and  having  a  trade  of  $75,000,000  a  year.  It  has  many  fine  pub- 
lic buildings,  nearly  100  chui-ches,  100  miles  of  railway,  and 
beautiful  avenues.  It  is  the  centre  for  pork  and  beef-packing. 
The  second  city  is  Lincoln,  which  is  the  capital,  and  the  chief 
railroad  centre,  having  a  population  in  1890  of  55,154.  It  has 


THE    "  BEE  "     BUILDING     AT    OMAHA. 


226  NEVADA. 

large  stockyards  and  grain  elevators.  The  third  city  is  Beatrice, 
the  centre  of  a  quarrying  industry,  with  a  population  in  1890  of 
13,836.  The  Governor  of  Nebraska  is  James  M.  Thayer  (Re- 
publican). His  term  expires  January  5,  1893.  The  State  is 
Republican. 

Negro  Population.     (See  Population  and  Area.) 
Nevada. —  The  first  white  men  in  Nevada  were  trappers,  who 
visited  the  region  in   1825.     Several   explorers  penetrated   the 

country  in  the  succeeding  year,  and 
Fremont  pitched  his  tents  there  in 
1843—5  and  explored  the  country. 
The  first  settlement  was  at  Genoa  in 
1851  by  Americans. 

The  Discovery  of  Silver,  in 
1858,  led  to  a  large  immigration. 
By  1862,  50,000  men  from  all  parts 
of  the  country,  and  of  all  conditions 
in  life,  came  to  the  State  in  search  of 
fortune.  The  State  was  admitted  to 
the  Union  in  1861.  It  has  the  richest 
GBEAT  SEAL  OF  NEVADA.  silver  mines  in  the  Union  and  there 
is  mined  a  large  amount  of  gold. 

The  total  output  of  silver  and  gold  has  been  over  $560,000,000. 
The  mines  were  worked  with  great  profit  until  1875,  when  they 
became  less  productive ;  the  average  product  of  the  State  is  now 
about  $10,000,000  a  year.  It  has  never  been  an  extensive  agri- 
cultural State,  but  the  farming  industry  is  being  developed  by  the 
introduction  of  irrigation.  The  State  has  500,000  sheep  and 
400,000  cattle.  There  are  hundreds  of  mineral  springs  of  all 
kinds. 

In  Nevada  are  many  wild  and  deep  Canons,  the  chief  of 
which  is  El  Dorado,  which  is  twelve  miles  long  and  from  200  to 
600  feet  deep,  at  the  bottom  of  which  the  Colorado  River  flows 
in  a  mighty  stream  half  a  mile  wide.  The  Great  Basin,  which 
is  supposed  to  have  once  been  a  sea  with  an  area  of  several  hun- 
dred thousand  of  miles,  and  which  at  some  unknown  period  was 
drained  off,  leaving  an  immense  plateau  4,500  feet  above  tide- 
water, is  one  of  the  wonderful  phenomena  of  the  State.  The 
country  abounds  in  wild  animals,  and  the  lakes  contain  thousands 
of  game  fish. 

The  population  of  Nevada  in  1880  was  62,266;  in  1890  it  was 
45,761.  It  was  admitted  to  the  Union  in  1861.  The  real 
property  in  1888  was  valued  at  $10,790,670  ;  the  personal  prop- 
erty at  $20,003,121 ;  the  manufactures  aggregated  $1,323,000  ; 


NEW    HAMPSHIRE. 


227 


the  acreage  of  the  farm  lands  was  530,862,  valued  at  $5,408,325  • 
the  average  school  attendance  was  5,149.  In  1890  there  'were 
924  miles  of  railroad,  and  twenty -five  newspapers. 

Virginia  City,  which  had  a  population  of  9,000  in  1890, 
is  the  site  of  a  great  gold  and  silver  mining  industry.  The  sec- 
ond city  is  Reno,  with  5,000  population,  where  there  are  flour- 
mills,  saw-mills,  and  reduction  works.  The 
third  city  is  Carson  City,  the  capital,  which 
had  a  population  in  1890  of  4,200.  The  cities 
of  the  State  are  situated  from  6,000  to  10,000 
feet  above  sea  level.  The  governor  of  Nevada 


A     MINING    CAMP     IN    NEVADA. 


is  R.  K.  Colcord   (Republican),  whose  term  expires  Jan.  7,  1895. 
The  State  is  Republican. 

New  Hampshire. —  The  State  was  settled  at  Dover  in  1623 
by  Englishmen.  The  early  inhabitants  suffered  greatly  from 
attacks  by  Indians.  In  the  early  wars  of  the  colonies,  New 
Hampshire  played  a  patriotic  part,  and  to  the  War  of  the  Rebel- 
lion gave  over  eighteen  thousand  of  her  sons.  It  was  one  of  the 
original  thirteen  States.  The  State  is  remarkable  for  its  Natural 
Beauty,  its  mountains  having  the  most  picturesque  scenery  of 
any  east  of  the  Rocky  Mountains. 

The  White  Mountain  region,  situated  in  the  northern  middle 
part  of  the  State,  has  1,300  square  miles  covered  with  forest 
growth.  This  region  still  maintains  its  primeval  wildness  and  is 
noted  for  its  attraction  to  summer  tourists.  Mt.  Washington, 


228  NEW    HAMPSHIRE. 

which  is  6,293  feet  high,  has  an  outlook  extending  over  four 
States,  and  its  summit  is  reached  by  a  carnage  road  ascending  its 
entire  slope,  and  a  railway  mounting  3,73(1  feet.  There  are 

seven  peaks  exceeding  five  thousand 
feet  in  height,  twenty-two  exceeding 
four  thousand  feet,  and  many  more  of 
about  the  same  elevation.  The 
White  Mountain  Notch,  a  defile 
cut  through  the  mountains  for  a  dis- 
tance of  several  miles,  is  traversed  by 
railroad  trains  bound  for  Canada  and 
the  West.  In  the  Franconia  Notch 
is  a  famous  profile,  a  stone  face  carved 
by  nature  in  the  mountain  rock  1,200 
feet  above  the  highway.  It  is  one  of 
GREAT  SEAL  OF  NEW  HAMPSHIRE,  the  great  natural  wonders  of  the 

world. 

The  lakes  of  New  Hampshire  are  famous  for  their  beautiful 
surroundings ;  the  chief  of  these  is  Lake  Winnepesaukee,  which 
has  an  area  of  seventy-two  square  miles  and  274  islands.  The 
Connecticut  River  flows  the  entire  length  of  the  State,  from  its 
source  on  the  Canadian  frontier.  The  other  rivers  are  the  Pemi- 
gewasset,  Winnepesaukee,  Merrimac,  Piscataqua,  Upper  and 
Lower  Ammonoosuc,  Androscoggin,  Contoocook,  Saco,  and  Sun- 
cook,  all  mountain  streams  with  rapid  current  and  abounding  in 
fish.  The  lumbering  business  is  carried  on  in  the  northern  sec- 
tion, and  produces  40,000,000  feet  of  logs  in  a  year. 

The  Manufacturing  cities  are  Manchester  (population 
44,126),  Nashua  (population  19,311),  Dover  (population  12,790), 
Laconia,  and  Suncook,  all  of  which  have  extensive  plants,  and 
employ  a  capital  of  over  $50,000,000  yearly,  paying  wages  of 
$15,000,000.  The  manufactures  include  cotton  goods,  cloths, 
carriages,  paper,  and  sheeting.  The  State  produces  the  famous 
Concord  granite,  some  gold,  tin,  lead,  zinc,  copper,  iron,  graphite, 
mica,  salt,  lime,  and  soapstone.  It  supports  several  important 
educational  institutions,  including  colleges  and  preparatory 
schools. 

The  population  in  1880  was  346,991  ;  in  1890,  376,530.  The 
real  property  in  1890  was  valued  at  $117,000,000;  the  personal 
property  at  $130,000,000;  the  farm  lands  aggregated  3,721,173 
acres,  valued  at  $75,834,389  ;  the  farm  products  were  valued  at 
$13,474,380 ;  the  school  attendance  was  43,484 ;  there  were  in 
1890  1,445  miles  of  railroad,  and  in  1892  152  newspapers. 

Concord,  the  capital,  with  a  population  of  17,004,  is  a  beau- 
tiful city,  with  fine  old  trees  shading  its  spacious  streets.  A 


NEW    JERSEY.  229 

statue  of  New  Hampshire's  proudest  son,  Daniel  Webster,  is 
here,  and  also  the  site  of  St.  Paul's  preparatory  school.  Hiram 
H.  Tuttle  (Republican)  is  Governor  of  New  Hampshire.  His 
term  expires  Jan.  4,  1893.  The  State  is  Republican. 

New  Jersey. —  The  State  was  settled  at  Bergen  in  1627  by 
Dutchmen.  The  first  European  explorer  was  Henry  Hudson.  It 

was  one  of  the  thirteen  original 
States.  It  has  120  miles  of  sea-shore 
and  several  mountain  ranges,  the 
highest  of  which  is  less  than  2,000 
feet.  In  the  northern  part,  rising 
perpendicularly  from  the  shores  of  the 
Hudson  River,  are  the  Palisades,  tall 
precipices  extending  as  far  as  Laden- 
town,  in  New  York. 

The  Manufactures  of  the  State 
employ  over  $100,000,000  capital  and 
yield   a  product   of    $250,000,000    a 
GREAT  SEAL  OF  NEW  JERSEY.    J^Y,  with  wages  to   230,000  opera- 

tives  aggregating  $50,000,000.     The 

leading  manufactures  are  oil,  glass,  sewing-machines,  hats,  to- 
bacco and  cigars,  gas  apparatus,  terra  cotta,  brick,  steam-boilers, 
thread,  and  soap.  There,  are  30,000  farms  worth  $265,000,000 
and  covering  2,929,773  acres.  The  production  of  hay  is  600,000 
tons,  worth  $707,500,000;  of  grain,  10,000,000  bushels,  worth 
$5,000,000 ;  of  wheat,  2,000,000  bushels ;  of  oats  and  potatoes, 
3,500,000  bushels. 

The  State  is  famous  for  its  Peach  Orchards  and  produces 
yearly  over  2,000,000  baskets  of  the  fruit.  The  cranberry  in- 
dustry has  produced  234,000  bushels  in  a  year.  The  minerals 
include  salt,  cement,  lime,  limestone,  granite,  zinc,  and  clay. 
There  are  three  colleges  and  a  State  Normal  School. 

The  population  in  1880  was  1,131,116;  in  1890,  1,141,072. 
The  real  and  personal  property  is  valued  at  $621,000,000.  The 
manufactures  yearly  are  $254,375,236,  employing  126,038  oper- 
atives; the  average  school  attendance  is  135,187.  There  were  in 
1890  2,846  miles  of  railroad,  and  323  newspapers. 

The  chief  cities  are  Newark,  with  a  population  in  1890  of 
181,830;  Jersey  City,  with  a  population  of  163,003;  and  Pater- 
son,  with  a  population  of  78,347,  all  prosperous  manufacturing 
cities.  Leon  Abbett  (Democrat)  is  Governor  of  New  Jersey. 
His  term  expires  January  16,  1893.  The  State  is  Democratic. 

New  Mexico. —  The  Territory  was  settled  at  San  Gabriel  in 
1598  by  Spaniards.  Previously  Spanish  explorers  crossed  Texas 


230 


NEW   MEXICO. 


and  penetrated  the  region  in  1536,  and  about  1550  the  Francis- 
can priests  founded  missions  among  the  savages  and  exhorted 
them  to  Christianity.  The  early  history  of  New  Mexico  tells  of 
the  establishment  by  these  missionaries  of  upwards  of  forty 
churches  with  36,000  communicants  from  the  savage  tribes.  It 
was  part  of  Mexico  at  the  time  it  was  ceded  by  Mexico  to  the 


.1.---- 


-,. 


VIEW    OF    TRENTON,     N.     J.,     AND     STATE    CAPITOL. 

United  States  in  1848,  and  the  eastern  part  of  it  belonged  to 
Texas  in  1850.  It  was  organized  as  a  Territory  when  Texas 
entered  the  Union  in  1850.  The  trade  between  Missouri  and  the 
New  Mexico  country,  which  began  early  in  the  century  and  was 
carried  on  over  the  famous  Sante  Fe  Trail,  by  means  of  pack 
animals,  prairie  schooners,  and  caravans,  still  has  about  it  an  un- 
usual romantic  interest.  These  adventurous  traders  were  fre- 
quently attacked  by  Indians,  and  the  journey  of  eight  hundred 
miles,  lasting  over  two  months,  was  full  of  danger.  The  Territory 
has  several  high  mountain  ranges,  the  highest  peaks  being  twelve 
thousand  to  fourteen  thousand  feet  above  sea  level.  The  plateaus, 


NEW    MEXICO. 


231 


fully  fourteen  million  acres  of  which  are  in  the  mountains,  are 
used  for  grazing  purposes. 

The  mighty  Rio  Grande  flows  through  the  heart  of  the 
Territory  in  deep  canons  and  valleys,  enriching  the  contiguous 
country.  The  Colorado,  Gila,  Zuni,  San  Francisco,  and  Canadian 
are  the  rivers  which  water  tributary  valleys  of  great  fertility,  and 
where  roam  immense  herds  of  sheep  and  cattle.  The  cattle 
number  over  one  million.  The  sheep  number  over  two  million,  and 
produce  eight  million  pounds  of  wool  a  year.  The  fruits  of  New 
Mexico  are  grapes,  peaches,  pears,  apricots,  melons,  and  quinces. 
Grain,  wheat,  barley,  and  other  cereals,  besides  vegetables  in 
variety,  are  produced  in  abundance. 

In  Mining  New  Mexico  has  a  growing  industry.  Gold,  silver, 
lead,  zinc,  iron,  and  copper  are  all  produced,  the  silver  product 
being  the  most  valu- 
able. Copper  yields 
3,700,000  tons  in  a 
year.  The  output 
of  bullion,  in  1889, 
including  silver  and 
gold,  was  over  $8,- 
000,000.  A  large 
proportion  of  the 
population  are  Mex- 
icans, and  the  de- 
scendants of  the 
Pueblo  race  still  oc- 
cupy many  of  the 
ancient  towns  and 
villages.  They  have 
their  own  village 
governments  and  are 
famous  for  the  fine 
blankets  which  they 
sell  to  tourists. 

There  are  several  tribes  of  Indians  in  the  Territory.  The  ruins 
of  the  ancient  cities  of  the  Zunis  are  of  absorbing  interest  to 
travellers. 

The  population  of  New  Mexico  in  1880  was  119,565  ;  in  1890, 
153,593.  The  taxable  property  in  1889  was  $47,000,000;  the 
manufactures  amounted  to  $1,300,000  ;  the  farm  lands  numbered 
631,131  acres,  valued  at  $5,500,000;  the  farm  products  were 
worth  $2,000,000;  the  school  attendance  was  12,300.  There 
were  in  1890  1,324  miles  of  railroad,  and  the  newspapers  num- 
bered thirty-nine. 


ON    THE    SANTA     F£     TRAIL. 


232 


NEW    YORK. 


The  chief  city,  Santa  Fe,  is  situated  7,000  feet  above  the 
sea  in  the  heart  of  the  mountains.  The  city  is  attractive  by 
reason  of  its  quaint  adobe  houses  and  narrow  streets.  The 
ancient  palace,  which  has  for  two  centuries  been  the  seat  of 
government,  is  the  principal  point  of  interest.  The  second  city  is 
Albuquerque,  which  is  a  railroad  centre,  and  carries  on  a  valu- 
able trade  with  the  surrounding  country ;  it  has  a  population  of 
7,000.  The  third  city  is  Las  Vegas  with  a  population  of  6,000. 
L.  Bradford  Prince  (Republican)  is  Governor  of  New  Mexico 
Territory.  His  term  expires  April  17,  1893.  The  governor  is 
appointed  by  the  President. 

New  York.—  The  State  was  settled  at  New  York  City  in 
1623  by  the  Dutch  under  the  command  of  Henry  Hudson,  who 

landed  on  the  coast  at  New  York 
while  on  an  exploring  expedition  in 
the  service  of  the  East  India  Com- 
pany. The  State  has  always  been 
intimately  associated  with  the  history 
of  the  country,  and  the  scenes  of 
some  of  the  most  famous  battles  of 
the  early  colonial  wars  and  of  the 
Revolutionary  War  are  within  its 
confines.  Her  statesmen  had  much  to 
do  with  the  prosecution  of  the  Civil 
War,  and  in  shaping  the  attitude  of 
the  government  toward  the  South. 

The  State  has  extraordinary  Fa- 
cilities for  Commerce ;  it  borders  on  Lakes  Ontario  and  Erie, 
and  has  many  large  canals  which  are  used  in  the  transportation 
of  her  products,  besides  many  noble  rivers  and  streams.  The 
important  rivers  are  the  Hudson,  the  "Rhine  of  America," 
the  Oswego,  Genesee,  Alleghany,  Delaware,  Saginaw,  and  Mo- 
hawk ;  while  the  great  St.  Lawrence  River,  which  receives  the 
outflow  of  the  great  lakes,  flows  for  a  hundred  miles  along  her 
northern  boundary.  The  State  has  also  numerous  large  lakes  ; 
of  which  the  more  important  are  Lake  Champlain,  Otsego,  Onon- 
daga,  Oneida,  Skaneateles,  Cayuga,  Seneca,  Canandaigua,  Keuka, 
Chautauqua,  Cattaraugus,  besides  several  hundred  lakes  in  the 
picturesque  Adirondack  region.  This  magnificent  mountain 
and  forest  region  is  a  wilderness  extending  to  the  Canadian  line, 
and  has  a  large  number  of  lofty  mountain  peaks,  the  highest  of 
which  are  from  4,500  to  5,400  feet  in  height.  The  other  chief 
mountain  ranges  are  the  Catskills,  whose  beautiful  glens  and 
romantic  traditions  have  been  immortalized  by  Irving,  the 
Shawangunk,  the  Delaware  mountains,  and  the  Helderbergs. 


GREAT    SEAL    OF    NEW    YORK. 


NEAV    YOKK. 


233 


Another  of  the  State's  natural  beauties  is  the  world-famous 
Niagara  Falls,  which  fall  into  the  St.  Lawrence  River,  a  per- 
pendicular length  of  154  feet,  and  2,000  feet  wide ;  another  fall 
is  160  feet  high  and  111  feet  wide.  Millions  of  tons  of  water 
pour  in  a  resistless  torrent  into  the  river  every  hour. 

While  New  York  is  the  first  State  in  manufactures,  it  is  also 
the  Second  State  in  agricultural  products,  of  which  it  yields 
annually  $178,000,000  worth.  It  produces  more  hay  than  any 
other  State,  and  more  potatoes,  while  its  fruit  industry  is  one  of  the 
most  valuable  of  any  State.  It  produces  30,000,000  bushels  of 
potatoes,  5,000,000  tons  of  hay,  35,000,000  bushels  of  oats,  20,- 
000,000  bushels  of  grain,  9,000,000  of  wheat,  7,000,000  of  barley, 
3,000,000  of  rye,  and  6,500,000  pounds  of  tobacco ;  it  produces 
in  large  quantities  buckwheat  and  hops. 

The  total  value  of  its  Manufactures  is  over  $1,000,000,000  a 
year,  employing  600,000  persons  whose  yearly  wages  are  over 
8200,000,000.  The 
manufactures  include 
practically  everything 
needed  for  human  life 
and  luxury.  Being 
the  Empire  State,  it 
is  also  the  financial 
and  speculative  centre 
of  the  Union.  Its 
financial  institutions 
are  the  most  substan- 
tial and  powerful  in 
the  country,  and  have 
international  connec- 
tions. Its  educational 
institutions  have  a 
high  standing  of  ex- 
cellence, including  eighteen  universities  for  the  higher  education  of 
young  men,  many  normal  schools,  nearly  three  hundred  acade- 
mies, thirty  Indian  schools,  six  colleges  for  women,  including  the 
foremost  American  college  for  women.  Its  libraries,  its  churches, 
its  charitable  institutions,  its  prisons  and  reformatories  are  among 
the  best  in  the  country. 

At  West  Point,  on  the  Hudson  River,  is  the  United  States 
Military  Academy.  (See  Army,  the  United  States.)  Other 
United  States  institutions  are  the  Navy  Yard,  at  Brooklyn, 
which  is  the  largest  naval  station  of  the  government ;  the  arsenal 
at  Watervliet,  the  forts  in  New  York  Harbor,  protecting  the  city, 
Wadsworth,  Tompkins,  Hamilton,  Lafayette,  Columbus,  Gibson, 


NIAGARA    FALLS. 


234  NEW   YORK. 

and  Wood  ;  on  the  Great  Lakes,  Fort  Ontario  and  Fort  Niagara, 
besides  several  barracks  for  United  States  troops. 

The  Canals  of  New  York  are  among  its  most  famous  public 
works.  The  Erie  Canal,  begun  in  1817  and  completed  in  1825, 
traverses  the  State  from  Buffalo  to  Albany,  and  by  way  of  it 
thousands  of  vessels  carry  millions  of  tons  of  freight  from  the 
Great  Lakes  to  the  Hudson  River,  and  thence  to  the  sea.  The 
total  length  of  the  canal  is  364  miles;  it  is  seven  feet  deep,  and 
over  seventy  to  eighty  feet  wide.  It  cost  $50,000,000  to  build, 
and  since  1882  has  been  free  to  the  public.  The  other  canals  are 
the  Delaware  and  Hudson,  Chenango,  Champlain,  the  Black  River, 
Chemung,  Cayuga,  the  Crooked  Lake,  the  Genesee  Valley,  and 
the  Oneida  Lake,  the  total  cost  of  all  the  canals  having  been 
$100,000,000.  The  annual  canal  tonnage  is  over  5,000,000 
tons. 

The  Bridges  of  the  State  include  some  of  the  most  notable  en- 
gineering triumphs  of  the  country.  (See  Railroads  and  Bridges.) 
The  population  of  New  York  in  1880  was  5,082,871 ;  in  1890  it  was 
5,997,853 ;  the  real  property  was  valued  at  over  $3,000,000,000  ; 
the  personal  property  at  $336,000,000 ;  the  acreage  of  farm  lands 
was  23,780,754,  valued  at  $1,056,176,171;  the  daily  school 
attendance  was  637,487.  In  1890  there  were  67,660  miles  of 
railroad,  and  in  1892  there  were  1,958  newspapers. 

The  city  of  New  York  is  the  greatest  manufacturing  and 
commercial  centre  on  this  continent.  The  imports  and  the  ex- 
ports include  two  thirds  of  the  whole  import  and  export  business 
of  the  country.  It  has  11,000  factories  producing  annually  nearly 
$500,000,000  worth  of  goods,  and  employing  over  200,000  per- 
sons. The  volume  of  its  clearing  house  operations  has  exceeded 
$50,000,000,000  in  one  year.  Its  Stock  Exchange  is  the  cen- 
tre of  the  financial  and  speculative  interests  of  the  country. 
Among  its  public  buildings  are  the  Produce,  Stock,  and  Cotton 
Exchanges,  the  prisons  and  asylums  for  the  insane  on  Black- 
well's,  Randall's,  and  Ward's  Islands,  the  City  Hall,  the  Custom 
House,  the  Sub-Treasury,  the  United  States  Assay  Office,  and  the 
Metropolitan  Museum  of  Art,  while  its  churches  and  cathedrals, 
its  hospitals  (over  sixty  in  number),  its  colleges  and  schools,  club- 
houses and  private  residences,  hotels,  theatres,  and  newspaper 
offices  are  the  most  costly,  and  in  many  instances  the  finest  archi- 
tecturally of  any  city  in  the  country. 

There  are  twenty-two  parks,  the  most  beautiful  of  which  is 
Central  Park,  which  covers  862  acres,  of  which  185  are  in 
lakes  and  reservoirs,  and  400  in  forests,  wherein  over  500,000 
trees  and  shrubs  have  been  planted.  This  magnificent  public 
breathing  place  has  nine  miles  of  roads,  five  miles  of  bridle  paths, 


NEW    YORK. 


235 

the 


and   twenty-eight   of   walks.     Its   Zoological   Gardens   and 
Egyptian  Obelisk  are  among  the  more  interesting  features. 

The  Elevated  Railroads  of  New  York,  carrying  525,000 
passengers  daily,  are  no  less  wonderful  in  construction  than  they 
are  convenient  in  the  every-day  life  of  the  people.  The  great 
Croton  Aqueduct,  the  Bartholdi  Statue  in  New  York  Harbor,  the 
immense  docks,  and  the  ships  and  ocean  steamers  are  other  nota- 
ble features  of  the  Metropolis.  The  city  is  fifteen  miles  long,  and 
had  in  1892  a  population  approximating  1,700,000  people.  (See 
Population  and  Area.) 

The  second   city  in  size  is  Brooklyn,  situated  opposite  New 


CITY    HALL    AT    ITEW    YOKK. 


York  on  the  East  River;  here  thousands  of  people  who  do 
business  in  New  York  have  their  homes.  It  has  a  fine 
water  front  lined  with  huge  docks.  In  manufactures  it 
stands  fourth  of  the  American  cities,  its  annual  products  being 
valued  at  $180,000,000  a  year.  The  Prospect  Park,  covering 
over  six  hundred  acres,  the  Greenwood  Cemetery,  and  the  ele- 
vated railroads  are  among  its  more  attractive  points  of  interest 


236 


NEW    YOKK. 


The  population  of  Brooklyn  in  1890  was  806,343.  The  Navy 
Yard  is  situated  here,  and  the  government  keeps  constantly  em- 
ployed a  large  force  of  men  and  engineer  in  the  construction  of 
vessels  for  the  new  navy.  The  Brooklyn  Bridge  (see  Rail- 
roads and  Bridges)  connects  the  two  cities,  and  there  is  a  cable 
road  running  across  the  bridge  at  a  height  of  135  feet,  which 
carries  in  the  course  of  a  year  millions  of  passengeis. 

The  third  city  is  Buffalo,  situated  on  Lake  Erie  and  having  a 
population  in  1890  of  255,664 ;  it  is  an  important  manufacturing 
centre,  its  chief  industries  being  iron  and  steel  manufacturing, 
with  an  annual  product  of  $55,000,000,  brewing,  leather,- oil 
refineries,  and  flour,  having  yearly  products  of  $45,000,000.  It 
is  the  centre  of  twenty  railroads,  and  from  it  run  regularly  five 
steamship  lines  with  a  fleet  of  sixty  lai'ge  steamers  destined  for 
the  ports  of  the  Great  Lakes.  Buffalo  receives  in  a  year  up- 
wards of  90,000,000 
bushels  of  corn,  while 
its  shipments  of  coal, 
lumber,  livestock,  etc., 
aggregate  many  mil- 
lions. It  has  a  fine 
Music  Hall,  a  costly 
Library,  and  a  City 
and  County  Hall  which 
cost  to  build  $1,350,- 
000. 

The  fourth  city  is 
Rochester,  with  a 
population  in  1890  of  133,896.  Albany,  Syracuse,  Troy,  Bing- 
hamton,  are  all  important  centres  for  manufacturing.  There 
are  upwards  of  twent}'-four  other  important  cities  in  this  wonder- 
ful State.  The  Governor  of  New  York  is  Roswell  P.  Flower 
(Democrat),  whose  term  expires  Jan.  1,  1896.  The  State  was 
carried  by  Tilden  (Democrat)  in  1876,  and  by  Garfield  (Repub- 
lican) in  1880.  Cleveland  (Democrat)  carried  the  State  in  1884, 
and  Harrison  (Republican)  in  1888. 

Newspapers. — The  evolution  of  the  American  newspaper  has 
been  even  more  wonderful,  if  possible,  than  that  of  the  American 
railroad,  or  steamboat,  or  the  agricultural  resources  of  the  coun- 
try. Its  achievements  have  been  not  only  along  the  line  of  more 
perfect  mechanical  and  typographical  construction,  but  also  in  the 
gathering  and  dissemination  of  the  happenings  of  the  world. 
Two  agencies  have  contributed,  the  one  no  more  than  the  other 
probably,  to  the  accomplishment  of  this  result,  the  modern  print- 
ing-press, and  the  telegraph.  No  machinery  invented  surpasses 


PRODUCE    EXCHANGE    AT    NEW    YORK. 


NEWSPAPERS. 


237 


the  Web  Perfecting  Press  in  the  intricate  simplicity  of  its 
mechanism ;  a  hundred  parts  of  iron  and  steel  fashioned  together 
in  an  upright  mass,  each  mutually  dependent  upon  the  others, 
taking  the  paper  from  a  roll  of  indefinite  length,  printing  it  on 
both  sides  at  one  and  the  same  instant,  cutting  the  sheets  to  their 
correct  size,  folding  them  three  times  and  depositing  them  ready 
for  the  news-stand  as  fast  as  a  man  can  pick  them  out.  This  is 
done  by  the  mightiest  presses  at  the  rate  of  90,000  four-page 
papers  in  an  hour,  or  twenty-five  a  second.  That  is  to  say,  from 
a  roll  of  white  paper,  a  four-page  printed  paper  may  be  made  in 
one  twenty-fifth  of  a  second !  Six,  eight,  ten,  or  twelve  pages  are 
printed,  cut,  and  folded  at  the  same  rate  of  speed.  Such  a  press 
as  this  occupies  a  year  to  build,  and  costs  upwards  of  $40,000. 
This  remarkable  rapidity 
in  printing  is  made  possi- 
ble by  the  use  of  stereo- 
type plates  of  metal. 

Ordinary  Type 
would  not  stand  the  strain 
of  such  rapid  execution.^?/ 
So  the  metal  plate,  which  *Jf%r^~ 
by  the  stereotyping  pro-  '  -= 
cess  receives  on  its  sui 
face  a  perfect  impression^ 
of  each  piece  of  type  as<* 
set  by  the  printer,  is 
made,  turned  to  cylindri- 
cal form,  and  locked  firm 
and  fast  in  the  press, 
where  in  common  with 
its  fellows,  one  for  each  page  of  the  paper,  it  revolves  beneath 
an  overhanging  roll  of  white  paper  faster  than  the  eye  can  fol- 
low it. 

The  Telegraph  in  journalism  brings  the  ends  of  the  earth 
within  speaking  distance  of  t)  j  editor.  The  larger  part  of  the 
messages  transmitted  by  tho  telegraph  companies  are  what  is 
called  "  press  matter."  If  sent  at  night,  that  is,  after  6  p.  M.,  it 
costs  the  newspaper  one  half  cent  a  word  for  an  average  of  three 
hundred  miles.  It  is  not  an  uncommon  thing  for  a  metropolitan 
newspaper  to  receive  in  a  night  from  thirty  thousand  to  forty 
thousands  words  by  telegraph.  All  the  large  papers  control 
Special  Wires,  used  only  by  themselves,  connecting  the  edi- 
torial sanctum  with  correspondents  in  the  large  cities.  New- 
York,  Chicago,  Boston,  Philadelphia,  St.  Louis,  and  papers  in 
other  large  centres  have  bureaus  in  Washington,  where  one  or 


THE  NEWSPAPER  PHOTOGRAPHER. 


238 


NEWSPAPERS. 


more  correspondents  are  maintained  the  year  round,  with  special 
wires  for  their  despatches.  New  York  being  the  fountain  head 
of  the  foreign  and  the  larger  part  of  the  important  domestic  news, 
all  well-equipped  newspapers  in  outside  cities  are  connected  with 
it  by  special  wires.  Thus  an  event  happening  in  New  York  at 
midnight  is  published  in  Chicago  in  next  morning's  paper. 

Another  agency  in  the  collection  and  dissemination  of  telegraph 
news  is  the  Associated  Press.  This  corporation  controls  or 
owns  wires  connecting  New  York,  its  headquarters,  with  every 
town  or  city  of  consequence  in  the  United  States  and  Can- 
ada. Its  foreign  service  is  especially  good,  and  nine  important 
-,  papers  in  ten  depend  upon  it  for  their 
i  foreign  news.  The  leading  New  York 
newspaper  proprietors  control  it.  Its 
franchise,  that  is,  the  right  to  publish  its 
news,  is  very  valuable.  While  a  large 
part  of  its  news  is  original  with  its  own 
staff  members,  most  of  it  comes  from 
newspapers  receiving  its  service  ;  by  the 
terms  of  the  contract  the  Associated 
Press  is  entitled  to  any  news  a  member 
may  have  on  its  proofs,  that  is,  not  yet 
printed,  which  may  be  telegraphed  to 
and  published  simultaneously  in  another 
city.  The  Associated  Pi-ess  originated 
from. the  competition  of  Boston  news- 
papers, about  1845,  in  the  receipt  of 
foreign  news.  Representatives  of  one  of 
them  intercepted  an  inbound  European 
steamer  in  Boston  harbor,  and  on  re- 
ceiving from  the  passengers  the  latest 
English  papers,  released  Carrier  Pig- 
eons which  carried  the  newspapers  to 
the  editorial  office  in  Boston,  where 
columns  of  European  news  were  "  scis- 
sored out"  and  published  hours  in  ad- 
vance of  the  rival  paper.  The  New  York 
papers  soon  entered  into  competition 
with  each  other  in  the  same  way,  even  to  the  extent  of  sending 
to  Boston  a  complete  printing  outfit,  as  the  New  York  Herald  did, 
to  set  up  foreign  news  on  the  return  trip.  It  was  not  many  years 
before  combinations  were  made  between  the  papers,  the  ultimate 
outcome  of  which  was  the  organization  of  the  Associated  Press. 

The  First  American  Newspaper  was  published  at  Boston 
on  September  25,  1690.     The  printer  was  Richard  Pierce  and 


THE     "  WORLD  "     BITILDIXG 
AT    NEW    YORK. 


NEWSPAPERS. 


239 


the  publisher  Benjamin  Harris.  It  was  a  monthly  publication, 
but  did  not  live  long,  being  suppressed.  It  was  headed  "  Pub- 
lick  Occurrences,  Both  Foreign  and  Domestick."  The  only  copy 
in  existence  is  in  the  State  Paper  Office  at  London.  The  Boston 
"News  Letter"  was  published  first  on  April  24,  1704,  by 
James  Campbell,  and  continued  to  be  published  until  177(5. 
The  third  newspaper  was  the  "  Boston  Gazette,"  the  first 
issue  of  which  appeared  on  December  21,  1719.  The  next  day 
in  Philadelphia,  William  Brodhead  bought  out  the  "  American 
Weekly  Mercuric."  Benjamin  Franklin's  brother,  James 
Franklin,  printed  and  published  the  "  New  England  Cour- 
ant,"  a  weekly,  in  August,  1721.  It  engaged  in  a  violent  con- 
troversy with  Rev.  Increase  Mather,  who  exercised  a  censorship 
over  its  columns.  This  proving  irksome  to  the  editor,  he  discon- 
tinued its  publication  in  his  own 
name,  and  published  it  under  that 
of  Benjamin  Franklin,  who  now  be- 
came the  editor.  In  1776,  there 
were  thirty-seven  newspapers  in  the 
country,  four  in  Boston,  four  in 
New  York,  four  in  Connecticut,  one 
in  New  Hampshire,  two  in  Rhode 
Island,  six  in  Massachusetts  outside 
of  Boston,  six  in  Pennsylvania,  two 
each  in  Maryland,  Virginia,  and 
North  Carolina,  three  in  South  Caro- 
lina, and  one  in  Georgia. 

With  the  progress  in  the  art  of 
printing  and  in  the  construction  of 
presses,  the  possibilities  of  large  edi- 
tions have  been  multiplied  year  by 

year,   at    a    constantly    diminishing 

»  -1-1 

cost   of   production,    so    that   nowa- 

days  every  town  of  1,500  inhabitants 

has  its  own  newspaper,  while  twenty  large  cities  each  support 
from  six  to  fifteen  daily.  In  1891,  there  were  1,791  daily  publi- 
cations, 14,000  weekly  ,4J,625  monthly,  327  semi-monthly,  238  semi- 
weekly,  180  quarterly,  90  bi-weekly,  76  bi-monthly,  76  tri-weekly, 
total,  19,373.  The  number  of  newspapers  published  in  the  world 
is  estimated  at  47,000  ;  of  these  over  19,000  are  published  in  the 
United  States  and  Canada,  7,000  in  Great  Britain,  6,000  in  Ger- 
many, 4,300  in  France,  2,000  in  Japan,  800  in  Russia.  Half  of 
them  are  printed  in  English. 

Nicknames  of  Famous  Americans.      (For  nicknames  of 
Presidents,  see  Presidents  of  the  United  States.)  —  A  characteristic 


FRANCISCO  "CHRONICLE" 
BUILDING. 


240 


NICKNAMES    OF    FAMOUS    AMERICANS. 


trait  of  the  American  people  is  their  habit  of  applying  nicknames 
to  their  leaders.  The  homelier,  that  is  to  say,  the  nearer  to  the 
level  of  the  common  people  a  nickname  is,  the  greater  its  political 
advantage  to  the  man  who  receives  it,  for  it  cannot  be  questioned 
that  nicknames  of  a  certain  kind  are  a  positive  help  to  a  candidate 
for  office.  Political  managers  recognize  this,  and  try  to  invent  a 
catching  sobriquet  for  their  nominee.  It  is  a  suggestive  fact  that 
most  of  the  great  men  of  the  nation  have  had  nicknames  of  an 
endearing  nature.  The  right  kind  of  a  nickname  is  quite  as  effi- 
cacious in  winning  votes  as  the  average  party  platform.  In  the 
following  category  are  given  some  of  the  more  common  sobri- 
quets of  famous  Americans  :  — 

Alexander  the  Coppersmith.  — The  first  coinage  of  cop- 
per money,  half   cents,  one  cent,  and  two-cent  pieces,  was  not 

liked  by  the  people.  They  had  been 
coined  under  Alexander  Hamilton's 
Secretaryship  of  the  Treasury,  in 
1793 ;  hence  the  nickname  was  applied 
to  Hamilton. 

Aliunde  Joe. — In  the  Electoral 
Commission  of  1877,  appointed  to 
decide  the  Presidential  election,  there 
was  a  tie,  and  it  devolved  upon  Justice 
Joseph  P.  Bradley,  of  the  United 
States  Supreme  Court,  to  cast  the  de- 
ciding vote.  He  cast  it  in  favor  of  the 
Republican  candidate,  Hayes.  His 
fellow-Republican  commissioners  took 
the  ground  that  it  was  not  possible 
to  consider  evidence  aliunde,  that  is, 
foreign  to  the  certificates.  As  the  le- 
gality of  this  position  depended  upon 
the  vote  of  Justice  Bradley,  his  legal 
brethren  dubbed  him  "Aliunde  Joe." 
The  Latin  word  was  a  favorite  with  the 

Justice,  and  he  used  it  frequently  in  writing  his  opinions.  As  relat- 
ing to  the  decision  of  the  Commission,  it  was  a  legal  expression  of 
the  principle  that  the  Commission  could  not  "  go  behind  the  re- 
turns." (See  Electoral  Commission.) 

American  Cato —  A  nickname  for  Sam  Adams. 
American  Chatham. —  A   name   given  to  Patrick  Henry 
because  of  his  oratorical  abilities,  which  were  regarded  in  America 
as  equal  to  those  of  Lord  Chatham,  the  English  statesman.    Henrv 
was  also  called  the  "  Colossus  of  debate." 
Ancient  Mariner  of  the  W abash.—  Robert  W.  Thomp- 


THE  "EVENING  POSl"  BUILDING 
AT  NEW  YORK. 


NICKNAMES    OF    FAMOUS    AMERICANS.  241 

son,  who  was  Secretary  of  the  Navy  under  President  Hayes,  was 
thus  playfully  styled  by  the  political  wags,  because  he  lived  in 
West  Virginia,  an  inland  State. 

Black^Eagle — The  "grand  old  Black  Eagle  of  Illinois"  — 
such  was  the  characterization  of  Gen.  John  A.  Logan  by  an 
orator  who  had  nominated  him  for  President  in  the  Republican 
National  Convention  of  1884.  He  was  also  called  "  Black 
Jack." 

Blue  Jeans  Williams. —  Governor  James  D.  Williams,  of 
Indiana,  wore  clothing  made  of  blue  jeans,  a  popular  article  of 
wearing  apparel  among  the  farmers  in  Southern  Indiana.  This 
part  of  the  State  is  frequently  spoken  of  as  the  "  Blue  Jeans  " 
District,  and  a  play  which  portrays  the  every-day  life  of  the 
people  there  has  been  produced  with  great  succoss.  It  is  called 
"  Blue  Jeans." 

Boy  Mayor. —  Governor  William  E.  Russell,  of  Massachu- 
setts, was  elected  mayor  of  Cambridge,  Mass.,  when  he  was  but 
twenty-nine  years  old.  This  fact,  together  with  his  youthful 
appearance,  gave  birth  to  the  appellation.  His  political  enemies 
sometimes  speak  of  him  as  "  Billy  the  Kid,"  and  as 
"  Willie." 

Calico  Charley. —  Secretary  of  the  Treasury  Charles  Fos- 
ter, in  his  young  manhood  conducted  a  dry-goods  business,  and 
among  his  intimates  was  known  as  "  Calico  Charley." 

Czar. —  Owing  to  his  attitude  in  the  Fifty- First  Congress  on 
the  quorum  question  (see  Hou-*e  of  Representatives  under  Fed- 
eral Government),  Speaker  Thomas  B.  Reed  was  called  Czar  by 
the  Democrats,  and  generally  by  the  Democratic  press.  The  name 
was  first  applied  to  him  by  Congressman  Breckenridge  of  Kentucky. 

Defender  of  the  Constitution. —  This  characterization  was 
made  of  Daniel  Webster  at  the  time  of  his  speech  in  reply  to 
Hayne  in  the  Senate.  Webster  was  also  called  the  "  Great 
Expounder,"  of  the  Constitution.  His  friends  familiarly 
spoke  of  him  as  "  Black  Dan." 

Farmer's  Dick. —  Richard  J.  Oglesby,  of  Illinois,  was  thus 
familiarly  called  by  his  admirers  on  account  of  his  popularity  with 
the  farmers. 

Fighting  Joe.  —  Gen.  Joseph  Hooker,  on  account  of  his 
well-known  qualities  as  a  fighting  commander,  was  thus  styled. 

Fire  Alarm  Foraker. — A  nickname  applied  by  the  New 
York  /Sun  to  ex-Governor  Foraker,  of  Ohio,  who  used  to  talk  often, 
but  more  especially  alarmingly  of  the  political  conditions  at  the 
South. 

Fuss  and  Feathers.  —  A  suggestive  nickname  for  Gen. 
Winfield  Scott,  used  by  his  enemies. 


242  NICKNAMES    OF    FAMOUS    AMERICANS. 

Gentleman  George. — A  name  for  the  late  George  H. 
Pendleton,  of  Ohio,  who  was  noted  for  his  polished  manners  and 
elegant  attire. 

Gladstone  of  the  West.  —  Gen.  John  W.  Palmer,  of  Illi- 
nois, is  sometimes  spoken  of  by  this  appellation  by  the  Democrats 
of  his  State.  Like  the  great  English  leader,  General  Palmer  is 
an  old  man,  but  the  resemblance  ends  there. 

Headsman  Clarkson.  —  James  R.  Clarkson,  the  Chairman 
of  the  Republican  National  Committee,  from  the  fact  that  he 
favored  wholesale  removals  of  Democrats  from  office,  and  declared 
the  Civil  Service  laws  a  failure,  was  dubbed  by  the  Democratic 
press  "  Headsman  "  Clarkson,  the  allusion  being  derived  from  the 
notion  that  when  removals  are  made,  official  heads  are  cut  off, 
and  fall  into  a  capacious  basket,  after  the  manner  of  a  guillotine. 

Honest  John. — A  popular  name  in  Ohio  for  Senator  John 
Sherman. 

Horizontal  Bill. —  A  nickname  of  ex-Congressman  William 
R.  Morrison,  derived  from  his  tariff  bill  introduced  in  the  Forty- 
Eighth  Congress,  which  was  known  as  the  Horizontal  Bill,  because 
it  provided  for  reductions  in  duties  affecting  practically  every 
import,  a  horizontal  reduction,  as  it  were. 

Jack  the  Giant- Killer. —  A  nickname  applied  to  John 
Randolph,  of  Virginia,  because  in  debate  he  compared  himself  to 
David  and  his  opponent  to  Goliath. 

Law  Partner  Miller. —  Attorney-General  W.  H.  Miller, 
who  was  a  law  partner  at  Indianapolis  of  President  Benjamin 
Harrison.  The  latter  used  to  speak  of  him  as  "  Partner  Mil- 
ler." 

Little  David. —  This  was  .a  nickname  of  John  Randolph 
of  Virginia,  applied  to  him  for  the  reason  that  once  in  a  debate 
he  compared  himself  to  David  and  his  opponent  to  Goliath. 

Little  Giant. —  Stephen  A.  Douglas,  who  was  small  in  stature 
but  a  giant  in  intellect. 

Little  Mac. —  This  nickname  originated  with  the  soldiers 
serving  under  Gen.  George  B.  McClellan,  and  was  applied  by 
them  to  their  leader,  whom  they  held  in  high  esteem. 

Mad  Anthony. —  Gen.  Anthony  Wayne  was  so  called  be- 
cause of  a  sudden  impetuosity  and  reckless  bravery  in  battle. 

Man  of  the  Town  Meeting — Prof.  James  K.  Hosmer,  in 
his  biography  of  Samuel  Adams,  happily  describes  the  Revolution- 
ary patriot  as  the  « man  of  the  town  meeting,"  a  designation 
which  has  been  quite  generally  adopted  by  other  writers  since 
then. 

Me  Too.—  This  term  was  applied  to  Thomas  C.  Platt,  in 
1881,  in  a  political  cartoon.  Piatt  and  Roscoe  Conkling  were 


NICKNAMES    OF    FAMOUS    AMERICANS.  243 

Senators  from  New  York,  and  when  President  Garfield  made  his 
own  choice  of  Federal  officers  of  the  State,  in  violation  of  what 
had  always  been  recognized  as  Senatorial  courtesy,  both  Sena- 
tors resigned.  This  action  compassed  their  political  death,  and 
one  of  the  comic  papers  printed  a  cartoon  representing  a  large 
tombstone,  with  Conkling's  name  inscribed  on  it.  Alongside  was 
a  much  smaller  stone,  inscribed  as  follows  :  "  Me  too.  T.  Platt." 

Mill  Boy  of  the  Slashes —  In  his  youth  Henry  Clay 
worked  in  a  mill  at  a  place  called  "the  Slashes."  The  nickname 
was  applied  to  him  when  her  an  for  the  Presidency.  Another 
name  for  Clay  was  the  il  Great  Commoner." 

Napoleon  of  Protection. —  The  New  York  Sun  made  this 
a  popular  name  for  Congressman  William  McKinley,  of  Ohio,  on 
account  of  his  having  fathered  the  most  comprehensive  protective 
tariff  bill  in  the  history  of  the  country. 

Natick  Cobbler,  The. —  A  nickname,  especially  in  Massa- 
chusetts, of  Henry  Wilson,  Vice-President  .of  the  United  States, 
1872-1876.  In  his  youth  he  learned  the  trade  of  a  shoemaker  at 
Natick,  Mass. 

Noblest  Roman  of  Them  All. —  This  -was  a  popular 
appellation  applied  to  Allan  G.  Thurman,  of  Ohio,  and  was  espe- 
cially quoted  during  the  campaign  in  1888,  when  he  was  the  can- 
didate for  Vice-President  on  the  Democratic  ticket.  "  Old 
Roman  "  was  another  of  his  nicknames. 

Old  Bullion. —  Thomas  H.  Benton,  of  Missouri,  at  the  time  of 
the  discussion  of  the  renewal  of  the  charter  for  the  United 
States  Bank,  was  a  prominent  advocate  of  a  gold  and  silver 
standard  for  the  currency,  and  his  opponents  used  to  call  him 
"  Old  Bullion  "  in  consequence. 

Old  Saddle-Bags. —  The  nickname  applied  to  Joseph  E. 
McDonald,  of  Indiana. 

Ossawattomie  Brown. —  This  was  a  nickname  of  John 
Brown,  bestowed  upon  him  because  of  his  having  lived  at  Ossa- 
wattomie during  the  insurrection  in  Kansas,  growing  out  of  the 
abolition  troubles.  (See  John  Brown's  Raid.) 

Our  Own  Evarts. —  The  characterization  of  Senator  Wil- 
liam M.  Evarts,  of  New  York,  originating  with  the  opposition 
press. 

Pathfinder. —  Gen.  John  C.  Fremont,  by  reason  of  his 
achievements  in  exploring  the  Far  West,  was  in  the  Presidential 
campaign  of  1856  called  «  The  Pathfinder."  (See  Campaign 
Songs.) 

Peacock  Senator.  —  A  derisive  name  for  the  late  Senator 
Roscoe  Conkling,  of  New  York,  which  arose  in  the  celebrated 
contest  between  him  and  Senator  Blaine,  in  the  United  States 


244  NICKNAMES    OF    FAMOUS    AMERICANS. 

Senate,  during  which  Blaine  made   a  speech  in  which  he   com- 
pared the  Senator  to  a  peacock. 

Plumed  Knight. —  In  nominating  James  G.  Blaine  for  the 
Presidency  at  the  Republican  National  Convention  in  1876,  Col. 
Robert  J.  Ingersoll  said  of  Mr.  Blaine  :  "  Like  an  armed  warrior, 
like  a  plumed  knight,  James  G.  Blaine  marched  down  the  halls  of 
the  American  Congress  and  threw  his  shining  lance  full  and  fair 
against  the  brazen  forehead  of  every  defamer  of  this  country 
and  maligner  of  its  honor."  At  once  the  name  of  "  Plumed 
Knight  "  was  applied  to  Mr.  Blaine,  and  has  ever  since  clung 
to  him.  In  the  1884  campaign,  plumed  knight  clubs  were  formed, 
and  wore  plumes  in  their  hats  as  they  marched  in  the  campaign 
parades.  (See  Torchlight  Processions.)  The  "  Man  from 
Maine,"  (a  favorite  alliteration),  the  "  Uncrowned  King" 
(on  account  of  the  popular  idea  that  he  was  the  power  behind 
the  throne  in  the  Harrison  administration),  and  the  "  Magnetic 
Man  "  (owing  to  his  winning  personality),  are  other  nicknames 
of  Mr.  Blaine.  As  Secretary  of  State,  he  also  wore  the  title  of 
"  Premier."  In  the  Blaine-Cleveland  campaign  of  1884,  he 
was  called  the  "  Tattooed  Man."  One  of  the  illustrated 
weeklies  of  New  York  printed  a  cartoon  representing  Mr.  Blaine 
as  Phryne,  before  the  Athenian  judges,  and  tattooed  with  the 
names  of  the  political  scandals  with  which  his  name  had  been 
connected.  By  some  it  was  thought  that  in  this  cartoon  the 
liberty  of  the  press  had  been  transcended,  but  as  the  campaign 
was  noteworthy  for  the  bitter  personalities  which  crept  into  it, 
the  cartoon  had  no  other  than  a  temporary  effect.  During  the 
campaign,  Mr.  Blaine  was  sometimes  derisively  spoken  of  as 
the  tattooed  candidate,  but  since  then  the  appellation  has  been 
dropped,  having  run  its  course. 

Poker  Charley.  —  Senator  Charles  B.  Farwell,  of  Illinois, 
was  frequently  called  "  Poker  Charley  "  from  the  fact  that  he 
was  supposed  to  be  an  adept  at  poker.  The  Senator,  however, 
disclaimed  any  knowledge  of  the  game,  and  denied  the  right  to 
wear  the  title.  The  man  who  originated  the  term  was  called  by 
the  Senator  a  "  miserable  skeezicks." 

Pre- Adamite. — This  name  was  given  by  the  New  York 
Sun  to  Senator  George  F.  Hoar,  of  Massachusetts.  The  Boston 
Globe  has  frequently  playfully  referred  to  the  Senator  as 
"  Gran'ther  Hoar,"  and  as  "Uncle  George."  He  has 
also  been  called  the  "  Moon-Faced  Senator  from  Wor- 
cester." 

Rise-Up-William-Allen.  —  This  was  a  familiar  name  in 
Ohio  for  Governor  William  Allen,  about  1874-76.  The  Demo- 
cratic party  being  in  need  of  a  candidate  for  governor,  one  of  the 


NICKNAMES    OP   FAMOUS    AMERICANS. 


245 


.       . 

GRANT.  •«"?. 

-V 


MILJTAKY    HEROES    OF    THE    REBELLION. 


246  NICKNAMES    OF    FAMOUS    AMERICANS. 

newspapers  published  an  editorial  which  ended  with  the  exhorta- 
tion, «  Rise  up,  William  Allen,"  the  object  being  to  call  him  from 
private  life  to  take  up  the  party  cause.  He  was  sometimes  called 
the  "  Old  Roman,"  and  was  the  first  to  wear  that  proud  title. 
He  was  the  uncle  of  Allan  G.  Thurman,  and  after  Allen's  death, 
Thurman  succeed  to  the  title. 

Seven  Mule  Barnum. —  The  late  William  A.  Barnum,  of 
Connecticut,  as  chairman  of  the  Democratic  National  Committee, 
in  1876,  is  said  to  have  sent  a  despatch,  in  cipher,  in  which  he 
used  the  words  "  seven  mules,"  each  mule,  it  is  understood, 
having  represented  $1,000. 

Sitting  Bull. —  The  late  Senator  Oliver  P.  Morton,  of 
Indiana,  was  thus  styled  by  his  enemies  on  account  of  the  fact 
that  he  used  to  sit  during  his  term  as  Senator,  being  unable  to 
rise  because  of  paralysis.  This  did  not,  however,  interfere 
with  his  making  gallant  fight  against  the  Democrats.  In  one 
of  the  campaigns  in  Indiana,  the  Democrats  nominated  for 
Governor  against  Mr.  Morton  the  famous  "  Blue  Jeans  Williams," 
and  one  of  their  campaign  songs  ran  thus : 

In  Hoosierdom  they  placed  a  pair  of  pants  in  nomination, 
But,  Ah,  the  truth,  though  late  revealed, 

A  precious  lesson  teaches. 
They  may  find  a  golden  calf  concealed, 

Within  those  blue-jeans  breeches. 

The  Republicans  quickly  retorted  with  the  following  verse  : 

A  golden  calf  and  homespun  blue 

Perhaps  would  be  a  blessing; 
But  better  far  the  Sitting  Bull 

Than  any  kind  of  dressing. 

Slippery  Sam. —  This  was  applied  to  the  late  Samuel  J. 
Tilden  by  his  enemies,  on  account  of  his  political  craftiness.  They 
also  called  him  "  Old  Usufruct."  When  he  was  nominated 
in  1876,  as  the  Democratic  candidate  for  President,  he  wrote  in 
his  letter  of  acceptance  the  word  "  usufruct,"  in  a  political  signifi- 
cation. Thomas  Nast,  the  cartoonist  of  Harper's  Weekly  at  that 
time,  drew  a  cartoon  caricaturing  Tilden  and  used  "  usufruct"  as  a 
text.  The  cartoon  immensely  amused  the  Republicans,  who  there- 
upon called  Tilden  "Old  Usufruct."  "Sage  of  Gramercy 
Park"  and  "Sage  of  Greystone "  were  other  more 
dignified  names  for  Tilden. 

Sockless  Jerry. — Congressman  Jeremiah  Simpson,  of  Kan- 
sas. He  was  elected  on  the  Farmers'  Alliance  ticket,  and  the 
first  reports  from  Kansas  were  that  he  did  not  wear  socks,  a  fic- 
tion which  he  has  since  publicly  contradicted. 


NICKNAMES    OF    FAMOUS    AMERICANS. 


247 


St.  Jerome. — Ex-Senator  Edmunds,  of  Vermont,  was  thus 
styled  "by  the  press  on  account  of  his  supposed  resemblance  to 
the  pictures  of  St.  Jerome. 

Sunset  Cox. — The  late  Congressman  Samuel  S.  Cox  was 
thus  styled  in  consequence  of  having  written  a  picturesque 
description  of  a  sunset,  while  he  was  a  journalist,  in  early  life. 

Sycamore  of  the  Wabash,  Tall. — A  nickname  for  Sen- 
ator Daniel  W.  Voorhees,  of  Indiana. 

Superb,  The.  This  was  a  derisive  name  applied  during  the 
war  to  General  W.  S.  Hancock.  It  ^  was  resurrected 
during  Hancock's  candidature  in  1880,  and  the  Repub- 

licans caricatured  it  by  representing  /j>\  Hancock  with  his 
plume  dropping. 


BOARD  OF  TRADE,  CHICAGO. 

Uncle  Jerry. — This  is  a  familiar  name   for     Secretary   of 
Agriculture,  Jeremiah  Rusk. 

^Watchdog  of  the  Treasury — Congressman  William  T. 
Holman,  of  Indiana,  on  account  of  his  persistent  opposition  to 
the  extravagant  appropriation  of  the  public  money. 

Wood-Pulp  Miller. —  This  name  was  applied  by  the  Demo- 


248 


NORTH    CAROLINA. 


cratic  press  of  New  York  to  Senator  Warner  Miller,  who  is  an 
extensive  manufacturer  of  paper  made  from  wood  pulp. 

Young  Hickory.  — In  the  spring  of  1892,  some  of  Senator 
David  B.  Hill's  admirers  nicknamed  him  "  Young  Hickory,"  in 
consequence  of  the  similarity  of  his  views  on  the  "  spoils  sys- 
tem "  with  those  of  Andrew  Jackson.  The  nickname  arose  from 
the  Senator's  having  said  something  to  the  effect  that  there  was 
still  some  old  hickory  in  the  Democratic  party.  He  has  also 
been  called  the  "  Bachelor  Governor." 

Nicknames  of  People  of  States.     (See  Mottoes  of  States 

and  Territories.) 

Nicknames  of  the  States.  (See  Mottoes  of  States  and  Ter- 
ritories.) 

Noblest  Roman  of  Them  All.  (See  Nicknames  of  Famous 
Americans.) 

Non-Intercourse. —  This  is  a  name  given  to  the  suspension  of 
trade  relations  with  a  nation.  In  1809  this  government  passed 
a  Non-Intercourse  Act  as  a  substitute  for  the  Embargo  Act 
(which  see).  The  act  prohibited  commerce  with  England  and 
France  and  prohibited  their  vessels  or  goods  from  entrance  into 
the  United  States.  Non-intercourse  is  a  weapon  of  the  govern- 
ment which  is  used  by  way  of  retaliation  for  wrongs  done  by  a 
foreign  country. 

Non-Interference. —  A  name  applied  to  the  doctrine  of 
Calhoun,  that  Congress  had  no  right  to  interfere  with  slavery  in 
the  States  and  Territories. 

North  Carolina. — The  State  was  settled  at  Roanoke  Island 
in  1585  by  the  English,  and  it  was 
one  of  the  thirteen  original  States.  It 
was  the  last  of  the  Southern  States  to 
join  the  Confederacy,  and  did  not  do 
so  until  Lincoln  demanded  of  her  a 
force  of  troops  for  the  Union  army. 
She  sent  out  more  troops  in  the  cause 
of  the  Confederacy  and  lost  more 
than  any  other  Southern  State.  North 
Carolina  was  an  important  fighting 
ground  throughout  the  war. 

The  rich  Mineral  Resources  of 
the  State  are  in  process  of  promising 
development.     Among  them  are  gold, 
of  which  the  State  has  produced  over 
$20,000,000  worth,  copper,  coal,  zinc  in  large  quantities,  mica, 


GREAT    SEAL    OF    NOKTU    CARO- 
LINA. 


NORTH    DAKOTA.  249 

marble,  granite,  soapstone,  and  sandstone,  while  its  phosphate 
beds  are  very  extensive  and  are  valuable  as  fertilizers. 

It  raises  in  a  year  400,000  bales  of  Cotton,  35,000,000  pounds 
of  Tobacco,  6,000,000  pounds  of  rice,  35,000,000  bushels  of  corn, 
5,000,000  of  wheat,  oats,  and  sweet  potatoes,  besides  a  large  crop 
of  peanuts.  The  grape-growing  industry  is  an  important  one, 
and  the  native  grapes  make  excellent  wine. 

The  Fisheries  of  the  State  produce  100,000  bushels  of  fish 
yearly;  the  oyster  catch  reaches  170,000,000  bushels  a  year. 
The  mountains  of  North  Carolina  are  in  the  middle  and  western 
part.  The  Blue  Ridge,  part  of  the  Allegheny,  and  the  great 
Smoke  Range  are  the  important  ranges.  In  the  latter  are 
twenty-three  peaks  over  6,000  feet  high.  The  State  has  upwards 
of  sixty  peaks  5,000  to  6,500  feet  in  height. 

In  the  western  part  of  the  State  is  the  famous  "  Land  of  the 
Sky"  where  there  is  beautiful  mountain  scenery.  The  region 
is  attractive  as  a  summer  resort  for  Southerners,  and  as  a  winter 
resort  for  Northerners.  The  population  of  North  Carolina  in 
1880  was  1,399,750;  in  1890  it  was  1,617,340;  the  net  State 
debt  was  $7,538,567  ;  the  real  property  was  valued  at  $122,000,- 
000;  the  personal  property  at  $81,000,000;  the  manufactures 
aggregated  $20,084,237  ;  the  acreage  of  farm  lands  was  22,639,- 
614,  valued  at  $135,793,602;  the  farm  products  were  worth 
$51,729,611;  the  school  attendance  was  208,657 ;  there  were  in 
18'JO  3,000  miles  of  railroad,  and  in  1892,  205  newspapers. 

The  chief  city  is  Wilmington,  situated  on  Cape  Fair,  and 
having  a  large  commerce.  The  city  is  connected  by  steamship 
lines  with  New  York,  Baltimore,  and  Philadelphia.  The  popu- 
lation in  1890  was  20,008.  The  second  city  is  Raleigh,  which  is 
the  capital,  and  is  situated  in  the  heart  of  the  State  on  an  eleva- 
tion. The  population  in  1890  was  12,798.  Charlotte,  the  third 
city,  with  a  population  of  11,555,  is  also  in  the  interior.  Ashe- 
ville,  the  fourth  city,  with  a  population  of  10,433,  is  situated  in  a 
mountainous  country  in  the  West.  Durham,  in  the  interior,  is  a 
small  town,  and  one  of  the  largest  tobacco  manufacturing  places 
in  the  world.  The  Governor  of  North  Carolina  is  Thomas  M. 
Holt  (Republican),  whose  term  expires  January  1,  1893.  The 
State  is  Democratic. 

North  Dakota.  —  The  State  was  a  part  of  the  Louisiana 
Purchase.  It  was  settled  at  Pembina  by  French  Canadians  in 
1780.  It  is  a  great  wheat-producing  country  and  has  some  of  the 
largest  farms  in  the  world.  It  is  watered  by  the  Missouri  and 
several  other  large  rivers.  Its  Red  River  valley  is  famous  for  the 
fertility  of  its  soil,  and  the  larger  part  of  it  is  under  cultivation. 


250  NORTHWEST    CONSPIRACY. 

In  the  production  of  Wheat,  Dakota  (North  and  South)  is 
first  of  all  the  States ;  it  raises  upwards  of  55,000,000  bushels  an- 
nually. There  are  flour  mills  in  the 
State  which  ship  direct  to  London. 
There  are  400,000  sheep  in  the  State. 
The  planting  of  groves  and  orchards 
has  been  carried  on  through  a  large 
part  of  the  State,  and  in  North  Dakota 
and  South  Dakota  upwards  of  50,000,- 
000  trees  have  been  planted  in  recent 
years. 

The  Population  of  North  Dakota 
in  1890  was   182,719.     The   assessed 
value  of  property  in   1889  was  $67,- 
GBEAT  SEAL  OF  NOB™  DAKOTA.   000,000  ;  there  are  1,485  public  schools, 

36,000  school  children,  2,100  miles  of 

railroad,  and  125  newspapers.  There  are  over  25,000  Indians  in 
North  and  South  Dakota,  most  of  them  Sioux.  North  Dakota 
was  admitted  to  the  Union  as  a  State  in  November,  1889. 

Fargo  is  the  chief  city,  and  had  a  population  in  1890  of  8,000. 
It  is  the  leading  commercial  centre  of  the  State,  and  has  impor- 
tant manufacturing  industries.  The  second  city  is  Grand  Forks, 
situated  on  the  Red  River,  and  is  the  centre  of  the  flour  and  lum- 
ber industry.  The  population  in  1890  was  6,500.  The  third  city 
and  the  capital  is  Bismarck,  situated  on  the  Missouri  River,  which 
has  a  fine  steamboat  commerce ;  it  had  a  population  in  1 890  of 
4,000.  The  railway  shops  of  several  important  railroads  are  here, 
and  the  Northern  Pacific  Railroad  has  constructed  a  bridge  across 
the  river  made  of  steel,  at  a  cost  of  $1,000,000.  The  Governor  of 
North  Dakota  is  Andrew  H.  Burke  (Republican),  whose  term  ex- 
pires Jan.  3,  1893. 

Northwest  Conspiracy. —  During  the  Civil  War  a  plot  was 
conceived  by  Southern  sympathizers  at  the  North,  who  com- 
bined for  the  purpose  of  inciting  an  insurrection  in  the  North, 
which  it  was  expected  would  operate  to  the  advantage  of  the 
South.  The  headquarters  of  this  conspiracy,  which  was  called 
the  Northwest  Conspiracy,  was  in  Illinois;  in  1864  its  leaders 
were  exposed  and  arrested. 

Nullification,  and  Nullification  Ordinance. —  The  expo- 
nents of  the  doctrine  of  Nullification  were  Calhoun  and  Hayne, 
the  former  maintaining  that  the  right  to  nullify  resided  in  the 
people  of  a  State,  the  latter  that  it  resided  in  the  legislature. 
The  doctrine  first  took  definite  form  after  the  tariffs  of  1828 
and  1832  went  into  effect.  Both  tariffs  were  obnoxious  to  the 


OHIO.  251 

South,  where  there  was  no  manufacturing.  (See  Tariffs  of  the 
United  States.)  South  Carolina  was  the  hotbed  of  the  nullification 
sentiment,  and  on  November  24,  1832,  a  State  convention  passed 
the  famous  Nullification  Ordinance,  which  declared  the  United 
States  Tariff  "  null,  void,  and  no  law,  nor  binding  upon  on  this 
State,  its  officers,  or  citizens,"  forbade  the  payment  of  duty 
under  the  tariff,  made  it  contempt  of  the  State  Court  to  appeal 
to  the  United  States  Supreme  Court,  caused  jurors  and  State 
officers  to  swear  support  to  the  Ordinance,  and  added  that  if  the 
government  used  force  against  her,  she  would  secede  from  the 
Union.  President  Jackson  promptly  declared  nullification  ("  dis- 
union by  armed  force ")  to  be  treason,  sent  General  Scott  to 
Charleston,  and  a  naval  force  to  its  harbor,  with  instructions  to 
aid  the  collector  in  the  collection  of  duties.  The  nullifiers,  at 
this  show  of  determination  by  the  government,  withdrew  from 
their  position,  and  the  following  year  a  State  convention  repealed 
the  ordinance. 

0.  K. — This  is  a  common  abbreviation  for  "  all  right."  It  is 
supposed  to  have  originated  with  Andrew  Jackson,  who  puzzled 
his  secretary  by  endorsing  these  letters  on  official  papers.  It  is 
said  that  the  hero  of  New  Orleans  declared  that  the  letters  stood 
for  "  all  correct."  However,  this  story  is  probably  a  gross  exag- 
geration. 

Oats,  Production  of.     (See  Agriculture.) 

Occupations  of  the  People  of  the  United  States.     (See 

Population  and  Area.) 
Ocean  Disasters.    (See  Ship  Building.; 
Ocean  Steamers.     (See  Ship  Building.) 
Odd  Fellows.     (See  Secret  Societies.) 
Offensive  Partisans.     (See  Slang  of  Politics.) 
Office    of    President  is    Essentially  Executive   in  Its 

Nature.      (See  Sayings  of  Famous  Americans.) 

Ohio.  —  The  territory  now  included  in  the  State  of  Ohio  was 
first  explored  by  La  Salle  in  1679.  It  was  settled  by  New  Eng- 
landers  at  Marietta  in  1788,  and  many  of  the  inhabitants  are  of 
New  England  ancestry. 

The  Ohio  is  the  principal  river,  and  has  a  course  of  430  miles 
on  the  southern  and  eastern  border.  It  flows  through  a  lovely 
valley,  with  wooded  hills  rising  to  a  height  of  500  to  600  feet, 
and  is  one  of  the  most  beautiful  of  American  streams.  The 
Muskingum,  Scioto,  Hockhocking,  Mahoning,  and  Great  and 
Little  Miami  are  the  next  in  importance,  and  all  flow  south  into 


252 


OHIO. 


CHEAT    SEAL    OF    OHIO. 


the  Ohio.     On  the  north  there  are  smaller  streams  which   drain 
into  Lake  Erie. 

In  point  of  Population  and  Wealth  Ohio  is  the  fourth 
State  of  the  Union.  Agriculture  is  the  chief  industry,  although 

in  manufactures  and  mining  the 
State  holds  a  high  rank.  The  soil 
is  very  fertile,  and  has  been  produc- 
tive of  large  harvests  ever  since  the 
land  was  tilled.  There  are  upwards 
of  10,000,000  acres  of  land  under 
cultivation,  the  chief  product  of 
which  is  corn,  of  which  Ohio  raises 
100,000,000  bushels  a  year.  The 
Wheat  crop  averages  35,000,000 
bushels,  the  oat  crop  35,000,000, 
potatoes  12,000,000,  tobacco  35,- 
000,000  pounds,  hay  3,000,000  tons. 
The  whole  agricultural  product  is 
worth  upwards  of  $100,000,000  a 
year.  There  are  500,000  acres  of  orchards,  yielding  30,000,000 
bushels  of  apples,  1,500,000  of  peaches,  and  250,000  of  pears. 
Large  quantities  of  strawberries  and  grapes  are  also  produced. 
The  acreage  in  bearing  vines  in  1890  was  28,087.  There  are 
10,000  square  miles  of  coal-fields,  yielding  in  1889  9,976,787  tons, 
Ohio  being  third  among  the  coal-producing  States. 

The  Iron  and  Steel  business  is  worth  $35,000,000  a  year, 
producing  about  250,000  tons,  and  employing  100  furnaces  and 
20,000  men.  As  a  wool-producing  State  Ohio  is  second  only  to 
Texas ;  it  has  4,000,000  sheep.  Salt  to  the  amount  of  400,000 
bushels,  fire-clay  to  the  amount  of  500,000  tons,  lime  of  600,000 
tons,  are  also  produced.  Limestone,  sandstone,  building-stone, 
and  various  other  stones  are  produced  in  abundance.  The  oil- 
wells  of  Ohio  produce  upwards  of  5,000,000  barrels  a  year.  The 
Natural  Gas  wells  are  famous  the  country  over. 

The  State  expends  $11,000,000  a  year  on  Education  for  up- 
wards of  780,000  school  children,  with  2,500  teachers.  It  has  37 
universities,  colleges,  and  professional  schools,  having  11,000  stu- 
dents. The  population  of  Ohio  in  1880  was  3,198,062;  in  1890, 
3,672,316;  the  net  State  debt  was  $7,014,767  ;  the  real  property 
was  valued  at  $1,185,000,000;  the  personal  property  at  $500,000,- 
000  ;  the  manufactures  were  worth  $348,305,000;  the  farm  lands 
covered  24,529,226  acres,  valued  at  $1,127,497,353;  the  farm 
products  were  worth  $156,771,152.  The  railroads,  in  1890,  had 
a  mileage  of  7,911,  and  there  were  1,139  newspapers. 

The  chief  city  is  Cincinnatij  which  is  situated  at  a  fine  loca- 


OHIO. 


253 


tion  on  the  Ohio  River  ;  it  has  numerous  fine  buildings,  including 
the  great  Exposition  Building  and  Music  Hall,  the  Chamber  of 
Commerce,  and  several  costly  public  buildings.  There  are  beau- 
tiful parks,  noble  bridges,  and  charming  suburbs.  The  manu- 
factures of  Cincinnati  produce  yearly  more  than  $200,000,000 
worth  of  goods,  and  employ  100,000  operatives.  The  population 
in  1890  was  296,908. 

The  second  city  is  Cleveland,  which  is  situated  on  Lake 
Erie,  and  has  a  fine  harbor  and  breakwater  and  substantial  piers. 
It  is  an  importing  centre  for  lumber  and  iron  ore,  and  an  export- 
ing centre  for  coal.  It  has  over  four  hundred  manufactories. 
The  iron  and  steel  manufacturing  business  of  the  city  produces 
$35,000,000  annually.  There  are  extensive  ship-yards  and  im- 


mense oil- works.  It  is  a  most  important  centre  for  steamboats 
and  railways.  The  profusion  of  trees  and  the  handsome  parks 
of  the  city  have  entitled  it  to  be  called  "The  Forest  City."  It 
has  numerous  fine  statues  and  some  of  the  finest  residence  streets 
in  the  world,  the  more  famous  of  which  is  Euclid  Avenue.  Lake- 
view  Cemetery  is  one  of  the  most  beautiful  in  the  country.  The 
population  of  Cleveland  in  1890  was  261,353. 

Columbus,  the  capital,  is  the  third  city  and  is  an  important 
manufacturing  centre ;  it  has  wide  streets  and  extensive  parks, 
and  three  colleges  are  located  here.  The  population  in  1890  was 
88,150.  The  other  important  cities  of  Ohio  are  Toledo,  which  is 
a  great  railway  and  shipping  point,  having  a  population  of  81,434. 
Dayton,  on  the  Big  Miami,  is  also  a  busy  manufacturing  centre, 
with  a  population  of  61,000.  Sandusky,  on  Lake  Erie,  has  a 


254 


OKLAHOMA. 


large  shipping  trade,  and  does  the  largest  business  in  fresh- water 
fish  in  the  country,  aggregating  $1,500,000  a  year.  The  Gov- 
ernor of  Ohio  is  William  McKinley  (Republican),  whose  term 
expires  January  8,  1894.  The  State  is  Republican. 

Oklahoma. —  Oklahoma  was  originally  part  of  the  Indian 
Territory,  but  the  government  purchased  a  section  of  the  unused 
lands  in  the  Territory,  part  of  which  was  known  as  Oklahoma 
and  covered  2,000,000  acres.  In  1889  the  President  proclaimed 
the  greater  part  of  this  Territory  open  for  settlement;  the 
Boomers  crowded  in  by  thousands,  pre-empted  the  lands,  and 
built  the  city  of  Guthne  in  less  than  a  day.  In  April,  1892, 
another  large  section  was  similarly  opened  to  the  settlers.  The 

greater  part  of  Oklahoma 
is  still  inhabited  by  In- 
dians, who  receive  regular 
supplies  of  money,  cloth- 
ing, and  provisions  from 
the  government,  and  are 
under  the  immediate  su- 
pervision of  Indian  agents 
and  the  troops  of  the 
United  States  forts. 

The  chief  inhabited 
places  are  Guthne,  with  a 
population  of  7,000,  Okla- 
homa City  with  a  popula- 
tion of  2,500,  and  Kingfisher  and  Norman  with  a  population  of 
1,000  each.  The  population  of  the  Territory  in  1890  was  61,- 
701,  of  whom  5,689  were  Indians.  Abraham  J.  Seay  (Republi- 
can) is  Governor  of  Oklahoma  Territory.  His  term  expires  May 
15,  1894.  The  governor  is  appointed  by  the  President. 

Oklahoma  Boomers. — This  was  the  name  given  to  the  men 
who  settled  in  the  Oklahoma  lands  in  Indian  Territory  in  1889. 
The  name  was  of  local  origin,  but  it  passed  into  common  use. 
(See  Oklahoma.)  The  boomers  waited  for  months  on  the 
boundary  line,  and  when,  at  a  word  from  the  government  land 
agent,  the  Territory  was  declared  open  to  settlers,  a  mad  rush  for 
the  best  lands  took  place. 

Old  Buck.     (See  Presidents  of  the  United  States.) 

Old  Buena  Vista.     (See  Presidents  of  the  United  States.) 

Old  Bullion.     (See  Nicknames  of  Famous  Americans.) 

Old  Hickory.     (See  Presidents  of  the  United  States.) 

Old  Man  Eloquent*     (See  Presidents  of  the  United  States.) 


AN    OKLAHOMA     BOOMER'S     CABIN. 


OMNIBUS    BILL.  255 

Old  Public  Functionary.     (See   Presidents  of  the   United 
States.) 

Old    Rough   and  Ready.     (See   Presidents   of    the   United 

States.) 

Old  Saddle-Bags.     (See  Nicknames  of  Famous  Americans.) 
Old  Three  Stars.     (See  Presidents  of  the  United  States.) 
Old  Tip.     (See  Presidents  of  the  United  States.) 
Old  Usufruct.     (See  Nicknames  of  Famous  Americans.) 
Omnibus  Bill.  —  The  hand  of  Henry  Clay  was  instrumental 
in  shaping  this  bill,  which  actually  formed  the  basis  of  the  con- 
test over  the  Kansas-Nebraska  bill  (which  see)  in  1854,  a  contest 
in  which  the  defeat  of  the   Whigs  and  the  drawing  of  the  lines 
between  North  and  South  gave  birth  to  the  Republican  party. 
California  applied  for  admission  as  a  State  on  February  13,  1850. 
The  issue  was  whether  the  territory  acquired  from  Mexico  should 
be  organized  on  the  plan  of  the  Wilmot  proviso  (which  proposed 
to  exclude  slavery  from  territory  to  be  purchased  of  Mexico),  or 
the  Missouri  compromise;  or  whether  the  doctrine  of  "  Squatter 
Sovereignty"  (which  see)  should  prevail  in  it,  which  was  to 
open  the  territory  for  settlement,  and  let  the  settlers  determine 
among  themselves  whether  the  States  in  it  should  ultimately  be 
free  or  slave  States. 

The  South,  openly  acknowledged  that  the  annexation  of  Texas 
was  a  Southern  measure,  adopted  for  the  express  purpose  of  add- 
ing slave  territory  to  the  South.  Calhoun  contended  that  the 
Constitution  was  the  supreme  law  of  the  land ;  and,  inasmuch  as 
it  recognized  slavery,  any  settler  should  be  permitted  to  take  his 
slaves  to  such  Territory,  and  be  protected  in  holding  them. 
Daniel  Webster  replied  that  "the  Constitution  did  not  bind 
Territories  till  they  had  been  created  into  States,"  and,  while  it 
provided  the  forms  by  which  this  could  be  done,  "  was  inopera- 
tive as  to  the  exercise  of  power  over  the  Territory."  "  It  could 
not  exercise  its  functions  even  over  a  State  without  acts  of  Con- 
gress to  enforce  it."  The  bills  on  the  calendar  were  :  A  bill  for 
the  admission  of  California  as  a  free  State ;  a  bill  for  the  organi- 
zation of  Utah  and  New  Mexico  as  Territories,  subject  to  become 
either  free  or  slave  States ;  a  bill  to  abolish  slavery  in  the  Dis- 
trict of  Columbia,  and  a  stringent  Fugitive  Slave  Bill,  besides  some 
others  of  less  importance.  Henry  Clay  undertook  the  task  of 
embodying  them  all,  except  the  one  for  the  abolition  of  slavery 
in  the  District  of  Columbia,  into  one  "  Omnibus  Bill,"  and 
passing  them  through  both  houses  at  a  single  balloting. 

Jefferson   Davis   proposed  the  extension  of  the,  Missouri 


256  OREGON. 

compromise  line  to  the  Pacific.  Mr.  Seward  proposed  the  Wilmot 
proviso  (which  see)  to  cover  the  territory  in  question.  Cali- 
fornia became  a  State  September  9,  1850,  and  was  admitted  with- 
out slavery.  New  Mexico  and  Utah  were  organized  as  Territo- 
ries without  the  Wilmot  proviso,  and  the  Fugitive-Slave  Bill  was 
passed.  The  South  settled  into  an  ill -concealed  tranquility,  and 
the  North  acquiesced  with  equal  grace,  except  the  Anti-Slavery 
party,  who  were  more  dissatisfied  than  ever  with  the  Fugitive 
Slave  Law,  which  required  any  private  citizen,  if  called  upon,  to 
assist  in  the  capture  and  rendition  of  slaves,  on  penalty  of  fine 
and  imprisonment. 

On  the  Fence.     (See  Slang  of  Politics.) 

On  to  Richmond.     (See  Sayings  of  Famous  Americans.) 

One  Man  Power.     (See  Slang  of  Politics.) 

Only  Good  Indian  is  a  Dead  Indian.    (See  Sayings  of 
Famous  Americans.) 

Oregon. —  The  State  was  settled  at  Astoria  in  1811  by  Ameri- 
cans.    There  has  always  been  some  question  as  to  whether  this 

domain  was  included  in  the  Louisiana 
Purchase ;  at  all  events,  it  ultimately 
became  a  part  of  the  United  States, 
and  was  admitted  to  the  Union  as  a 
State  in  1859. 

The  Cascade  Mountains,  which 
cross  the  State  from  north  to  south, 
dividing  Oregon  into  two  unequal 
parts,  known  as  Eastern  and  Western 
Oregon,  range  from  four  thousand  to 
ten  thousand  feet  in  height,  reaching 
the  region  of  perpetual  snow.  The 
GKEAT  SEAL  OF  OREGON.  principal  peaks  are  Mt.  Hood,  11,225 
feet;  Mt.  Jefferson,  10,200  feet;  the 

Three  Sisters  and  Diamond  Peak,  each  9,420  feet;  and  Mt. 
McLaughlin,  11,000  feet.  The  principal  harbors  are  at  the 
mouths  of  the  Columbia  and  Rogue  Rivers.  There  are  many 
other  rivers,  most  of  them  navigable.  The  Columbia  rises  in  the 
Rocky  Mountains,  and  is  navigable  for  ships  one  hundred  and 
fifteen  miles  from  the  sea,  and  for  steamers  one  hundred  and 
sixty-five  miles.  It  is  a  rapid  stream,  and  receives  nearly  all  the 
rivers  of  Oregon.  -The  Columbia  is  thirteen  hundred  miles  in 
length.  Its  numerous  cascades,  canons,  narrows,  and  rapids 
enhance  the  beauty  of  the  scenery. 

One  of  the  most  important  industries  of  Oregon  is  the  Colum- 


OREGOX. 


257 


bia  River  Salmon  Fisheries,  which  yield  upwards  of  450,000 
cases  of  fish,  including  fresh  fish,  annually.     The  river  is  stocked 
from  the  government  hatchery,  which  now  puts  5,000,000  young 
salmon  into  the  river  each  year.     The  chief  agricultural    product 
is  wheat,  of  which  fifteen  million  bushels  have  been  produced  in  a 
year ;  the  product  of  oats  is  about  six   million   bushels,  and   hops, 
corn,    flax,    rye,    barley,    and   buckwheat,    are    raised   in   large 
quantities.     Fruit  trees  have  been  extensively  planted  in  the  last 
six  years.     Cattle-raising  is  one  of  the  most  important  industries 
and  the  State  has  over  five  hundred  thousand  head,  the   equable 
climate   being     especially   adapted   to   the    fattening    of   cattle. 
There   are     on   the 
ranges   2,500,000        V 
sheep,   yielding  six- 
teen million  pounds 
of  wool  in  a  year. 

The  Lumber- 
ing interests  are 
very  extensive, 
there  being  over 
twenty-five  thou- 
sand square  miles  of 
woodland,  including 
pine,  red  fir,  red  and 
white  cedar,  hem- 
lock, oak,  maple, 
cotton- wood,  and 
ash.  The  mills  are 
all  in  prosperous 
condition  and  are 
kept  busy  nearly  all  the  time.  Gold  and  silver,  in  comparatively 
small  amounts,  are  produced,  also  coal,  iron  ore,  nickel,  manga- 
nese, lime,  granite,  marble,  sandstone,  and  clay. 

The  chief  city  is  Portland,  on  the  Willamette  River,  which 
has  a  fine  location  for  an  extensive  shipping  trade.  The  export 
business  to  China,  Japan,  and  South  America  has  in  a  single 
year  amounted  to  5,000,000  bushels  of  wheat  and  500,000  bar- 
rels of  flour,  besides  large  quantities  of  lumber.  The  manufac- 
tures amount  to  $28,000,000  a  year  and  the  total  volume  of  busi- 
ness to  $130,000,000.  The  exports  are  about  $12,000,000  a  year. 
Steamship  lines  run  to  Japan,  British  Columbia,  Alaska,  and 
San  FYancisco,  and  there  are  several  lines  of  coast  steamers. 
Sailing  vessels  leave  Portland  for  China,  South  America,  New 
York,  and  all  parts  of  the  United  Kingdom.  Part  of  the  city 
is  1,000  feet  above  the  sea  level.  Among  its  prominent  buildings 


VIEW    OF    PORTLAND,     OREGON. 


258 


PAN  ELECTBIC  SCANDAL. 


are  the  Industrial  Exposition  buildings,  three  large  hotels,  an 
Opera  House  which  cost  $700,000,  the  Masonic  Temple,  and  the 
schools,  colleges,  and  churches.  The  population  of  Portland  in 
1890  was  46,385  ;  East  Portland  in  1890  had  10,532. 

Another  important  business  centre  is  Astoria,  which  is  sit- 
uated on  the  Columbia  River;  it  had  a  population  in  1890  of 
8,090.  Sylvester  Pennoyer  (Democrat)  is  governor  of  Oregon. 
His  term  expires  January  13,  1895.  The  State  is  Republican. 

Ossawatomie  Brown.  (See  Nicknames  of  Famous  Ameri- 
cans.) 

Our  Own  Evarts.     (See  Nicknames  of  Famous  Americans.) 

Pacific  Railroads.     (See  Railroads  and  Bridges.) 

Pair  Off.     (See  Slang  of  Politics.) 

Pan   Electric  Scandal. —  In  the  administration  of  President 

Cleveland  the  Pan  Electric 
Company  brought  suit  in  the 
United  States  Supreme  Court 
on  behalf  of  the  United  States 
Government,  for  the  annul- 
ment of  the  Bell  telephone 
patents,  the  Pan  Electric 
Company  claiming  patents 
which  would  be  valuable  if 
the  Bell  telephone  patents 
<were  declared  invalid.  It 
was  asserted  that  Attorney- 
General  Garland  had  re- 
ceived some  of  the  stock  of 

CHAMBER  OF  COMMERCE,  PORTLAND.  OREGON.      .  mi   •        J        1 

the  company.  Ihis  declara- 
tion caused  a  scandal  which  created  so  much  talk  that  Garland 
resigned. 

Panics,  Financial. — Experts  in  the  monetary  science  show 
with  much  plausibility  that  panics  are  of  periodic  occurrence ; 
that  there  is  an  interval  between  them  which  is  marked  by  an 
era  of  great  prosperity  inevitably  to  be  followed  by  a  depression 
culminating  in  a  panic.  In  the  United  States,  there  have  been 
five  panics  traceable  to  this  law,  if  law  it  may  be  called,  and  one 
other  panic,  known  as  Black  Friday  (which  see),  which  was  due 
to  manipulation  of  the  gold  market,  and  had,  therefore,  an  arti- 
ficial origin.  In  1819,  1837,  1857,  1873,  and  1884,  stringency  in 
the  money  market  occurred,  in  each  instance  resulting  in  great 
commercial  depression,  accompanied  by  business  failures.  The 
money  Stringency  of  1819  was  due  to  the  expense  incurred 


PANICS.  259 

in  carrying  on  the  war  of  18T2,  and  to  the  call  by  the  government 
upon  the  Bank  of  the  United  States  for  over  $7,000,000  in 
funds  to  meet  the  payments  due  for  the  Louisiana  Purchase. 
The  Bank  paid  the  money,  but  was  compelled  to  curtail  its 
discounts,  and  the  commercial  interests  felt  it. 

The  speculation  in  Western  lands  about  1835  was  the  chief 
cause  of  the  Panic  of  1837,  which  involved  the  country  in 
great  depression.  A  contributing  cause  of  this  speculation  was  an 
act  of  Congress,  in  1836,  which  authorized  the  distribution  among 
the  States  as  a  loan  of  upwards  of  $35,000,000  of  the  government 
surplus.  The  receipt  of  this  large  sum  of  money  by  the  States 
led  to  inflation  in  all  kinds  of  financial  enterprises.  The  State 
Banks  were  paying  for  public  lands  in  notes  which  the  govern- 
ment regarded  as  of  doubtful  value,  and  President  Jackson  issued 
a  Specie  Circular,  ordering  government  agents  to  accept  only 
gold  and  silver  in  payment  for  the  lands.  The  effect  of  this  was 
a  great  demand  for  specie,  in  meeting  which  the  banks  containing 
the  specie  were  seriously  embarrassed,  and  many  of  them  went 
under.  Many  of  these  banks  were  State  banks,  where  govern- 
ment money  was  at  that  time  largely  deposited,  and  were  known 
as  "  Pet  Banks."  Hundreds  of  other  banks,  which  had  sprung 
into  existence  with  the  disappearance  of  the  Bank  of  the  United 
States,  and  which  had  encouraged  and  participated  in  the  wild 
speculation  in  public  lands,  were  forced  under.  The  State  banks 
suspended  specie  payments,  and  the  crisis  was.  at  hand.  The 
New  York  banks  refused  to  pay  gold  or  silver  for  their  own 
notes,  and  the  legislature  of  the  State  authorized  the  suspension 
of  specie  payments  for  one  year.  President  Van  Buren  called  a 
special  session  of  Congress  to  consider  the  situation,  the  upshot 
of  which  was  Van  Buren's  proposal  to  establish  Sub-Treasuries 
in  important  money  centres,  but  the  proposition  was  rejected. 
Acts  were  passed  by  way  of  compromise  to  cease  distribution  of 
revenue  among  the  States,  and  to  authorize  the  issue  of  $10,000,- 
000  of  treasury  notes,  and  an  extension  of  time  to  merchants  on 
their  revenue  bonds.  By  April,  1838,  specie  payments  were 
resumed. 

Specie  Payments  were  also  suspended  in  October,  1857, 
and  sixty  days  afterwards  they  were  resumed,  but  meantime, 
several  thousand  business  houses  went  to  the  wall.  In  Decem- 
ber, 1861,  specie  payments  were  suspended  by  the  government 
and  by  the  banks  in  consequence  of  the  outlay  incurred  by  the 
Civil  War,  and  gold  sold  as  high  as  285.  The  following  year  the 
first  issue  of  greenbacks  as  paper  currency  was  made.  Specie 
payments  were  not  resumed  until  January  1,  1879,  when  the 
greenbacks  were  redeemed  for  coin  at  par. 


260  PATENT    OFFICE. 

The  Panic  of  1873  was  due  chiefly  to  the  fact  that  millions 
of  capital  was  locked  up  in  railroads,  which  were  built  about  this 
time  far  beyond  the  needs  of  the  country.  There  was  another 
decline  in  prices  in  1884,  when  money  was  worth  three  per  cent, 
a  day.  But  the  difficulty  was  happily  tided  over,  and  its  conse- 
quences were  not  permanent. 

Parades,  Political.     (See  Torchlight  Processions.) 

Parties,  Political.      (See  Political  Parties.) 

Pasters.     (See  Slang  of  Politics.) 

Patent  Office,  The. —  The  Patent  Office,  under  the  system  of 
patents,  is  designed  to  aid  the  inventor  in  the  protection  of  his 
invention.  The  patent  continues  for  a  term  of  seventeen  years, 
during  which  the  patentee,  or  his  heirs  or  assigns,  may  have 
exclusive  right  to  the  use,  production,  or  sale  of  his  invention  in 
this  country.  To  Secure  a  Patent,  application  must  be  made 
in  writing  to  the  Commissioner  of  Patents,  accompanied  by  a  writ- 
ten description  of  the  invention,  full  and  exact  details  as  to  the 
manner  and  process  of  making  it  and  using  it,  a  full  explanation 
of  any  principle  of  science  or  mechanics  there  may  be  under- 
lying it,  and  these  specifications  must  be  signed  by  the  inventor 
and  attested  by  two  witnesses.  If  possible  the  inventor  must 
submit  drawings  signed  by  himself  and  attested  by  two  witnesses, 
to  be  placed  on  file  in  the  Patent  Office  ;  he  must  also  make  oath 
to  his  belief  that  he  is  the  original  inventor  of  the  article  or  sub- 
stance which  he  proposes  to  patent.  He  must  also  pay,  in  ad- 
vance, fees  as  follows  :  On  filing  application,  fifteen  dollars  ;  on 
issuing  each  original  patent,  twenty  dollars.  There  are  also 
other  fees  for  other  patents ;  for  reissuing  of  a  patent,  the  fee  is 
thirty  dollars. 

Caveat  is  a  notification  to  the  Patent  Office  of  original  claim 
as  an  inventor,  by  which  the  inventor  is  protected  from  the  grant- 
ing of  a  patent  to  some  one  else  for  the  same  invention.  If  the 
inventor  desires  further  time  to  mature  and  perfect  his  invention, 
he  can  do  so  by  filing  the  caveat  with  a  description  of  the  invention. 
The  Patent  Office  will  take  his  caveat  and  keep  it  secret  in  the 
archives  of  the  office  for  one  year  after  it  has  been  filed.  During 
the  fiscal  year  ending  1891,  the  Number  of  Applications  for 
patents  was  39,696 ;  the  number  of  caveats  was  2,333 ;  the 
number  of  patents  granted,  including  reissue  and  designs,  trade- 
marks, labels,  etc.,  was  27,340 ;  the  number  of  patents  that 
expired  was  12,383.  The  receipts  of  the  Patent  Office  were 
$1,302,795.  The  total  number  of  applications  for  patents  in 
fifty-five  years  has  been  786,199;  the  number  of  patents  issued 
has  been  503,125. 


PENNSYLVANIA.  261 

Particularists.     (See  Political  Parties.) 
Pathfinder.      (See  Nicknames  of  Famous  Americans.) 
Pay  Table,  Army.     (See  Army,  United  States.) 

Peace  Congress.  The  Peace  Congress  was  convened  for  the 
purpose  of  devising  some  plan  by  which  the  troubles  between 
North  and  South  in  1860  might  be  settled  without  an  appeal  to 
arms.  Virginia  issued  the  call,  and  in  February,  1861,  the  Con- 
gress met  at  Washington,  fourteen  free  States  and  seven  slave 
States  being  represented.  The  majority  report  of  a  general  com- 
mittee recommended,  by  way  of  a  solution  of  the  difficulties,  amend- 
ments to  the  Constitution  to  the  effect  that  north  of  36°  30' 
slavery  should  be  prohibited ;  that  south  of  that  line  it  should 
continue  undisturbed ;  that  neither  the  Constitution  nor  any 
amendment  thereof  was  to  be  construed  as  giving  Congress 
power  to  interfere  with  slavery  in  any  State;  that  no  new  ter- 
ritory was  to  be  acquired  except  by  discovery  or  for  naval  and 
commercial  stations  or  depots,  without  the  concurrence  of  a 
majority  of  the  Senators  from  the  free  States  and  a  majority  of  the 
Senators  from  the  slave  States.  These,  propositions  were  submitted 
to  both  the  Senate  and  the  House,  but  were  straightway  rejected. 

Peacock  Senator.      (See  Nicknames  of  Famous  Americans.) 
Peanut  Politics.     (See  Slang  of  Politics.) 
Pedestal  for  This  Colossal    Heresy.     (See    Sayings    of 
Famous  Americans.) 

Pennsylvania.— The  State  was  settled  in  1643  at  what  is 
now  the  city  of  Chester,  by  the  Swedes,  although  the  Dutch 

claimed  the  soil  from  the  fact  of  the 
discovery  of  Delaware  Bay  by 
Henry  Hudson,  in  1609.  The  ter- 
ritory eventually  passed  into  the 
power  of  Great  Britain,  and  in  1681, 
William  Penn,  who  had  received  an 
extensive  grant  from  Charles  II., 
became  absolute  proprietor  of  the 
new  province.  During  the  first  fifty 
years  of  its  existence,  thousands  of 
Germans  and  Swiss  settlers  immi- 
grated to  Pennsylvania,  and  formed 
the  bulk  of  the  population,  and  from 
GREAT  SEAL  OF  PENNSYLVANIA,  that  day  to  this  "Pennsylvania 

Dutch "    has    been    the   byword   m 

speaking  of  its    people.     At  the  same  time  there  was  a  heavy 
immigration  of  Quakers  and  Scotch-Irish. 


262 


PENNSYLVANIA. 


Pennsylvania  rallied  to  the  Cause  of  Independence  .111.1 
her  sons  played  a  prominent  p.art  in  the  Revolution  L  was  HI 
Philadelphia  that  the  Continental  Congress  assembled,  and  it  was 
here  that  the  Declaration  of  Independence  was  signed.  I  Inhi- 
delphia  was  originally  the  capital,  but  in  1799  the  seat  of  govern- 
ment was  transferred  to  Lancaster,  and  m  1812  to  Harnsburg, 
where  it  still  remains. 

The  State  is  remarkable  for  its  great  beauty.  The  Cumber- 
land Valley  forms  a  part  of  the  great  depression  which  extends 
through  the  entire  length  of  the  Appalachian  system  as  far 
south  as  Alabama.  The  Susquehanna  drains  nearly  one  half  the 
area  of  the  State.  Its  chief  tributary  is  the  Jumata.  The  Dela- 
ware, which  rises  in  the  Catskill  Mountains  in  New  York,  is  a 
tidal  stream  132 
miles  from  the  sea, 
at  Trenton.  The 
Alleghany  rises  in 
the  ""  oil  country," 
and  at  Pittsburg 


PHILADELPHIA     CITY    HALL. 


forms  a  junction  with  the  Monongahela.     The  Ohio,  below  their 
junction,  is  a  great  thoroughfare  for  steam  navigation. 

The  State  is  one  of  the  first  in  Manufactures  and  in  Agri- 
culture, besides  being  the  first  in  Coal  Production  and 
Iron  Manufacturing.  Upwards  of  300,000  of  her  citizens 
are  engaged  in  agriculture.  The  farms  number  200,000,  with  an 
acreage  of  20,060,455  in  1890,  valued  at  over  $1,000,000,000.  The 


PENNSYLVANIA.  263 

farm  products  are  worth  $150,000,000  a  year.  The  product  of 
corn  amounts  to  40,000,000  bushels  a  year ;  of  oats,  30,000,000 ; 
of  wheat,  17,000,000;  of  rye,  5,000,000  ;  of  potatoes,  15,000,000; 
of  hay,  3,000,000  tons;  while  the  leaf  tobacco  industry  is  no  less 
important,  the  production  averaging  about  24,000,000  pounds  a 
year.  There  are  between  4,500,000  and  5,000,000  head  of  live- 
stock,  of  which  1,500,000  are  sheep,  1,600,000  are  cattle,  1,000,- 
000  hogs,  and  500,000  horses. 

In  the  manufacturing  of  Iron,  Pennsylvania  produces  as  much 
as  all  the  other  States  combined.  It  has  been  an  industry  in 
this  State  ever  since  1688,  when  William  Penn  put  in  operation 
the  first  blast-furnace.  In  the  year  ending  June  30,  1890,  the 
output  of  iron  in  her  anthracite  furnaces  was  1,842,000  tons.  In 
the  coke  and  bituminous  furnaces  the  output  was  2,847,000  tons. 
The  State  makes  upwards  of  800,000  tons  of  steel  rails,  35,000 
tons  of  iron  rails,  and  130,000  tons  of  steel  ingots.  The  deposits 
of  iron  ore  seem  to  be  without  limit,  although  nearly  9,000,000 
tons  of  the  ore  have  been  taken  out  since  1740. 

The  State  produces  as  much  Coal  as  all  the  other  States  and 
Territories  combined.  The  anthracite  coal-beds  cover  seven 
districts  of  the  State ;  the  output  of  anthracite  in  1889-90  was 
45,544,970  tons.  The  bituminous  coal  fields  cover  over  12,000 
square  miles,  yielding  in  1889-90  36,174,089  tons.  The  State 
also  produces  large  quantities  of  oil,  zinc,  coke,  sandstone,  mar- 
ble, bluestone,  lead,  nickel,  some  copper,  besides  graphite,  salt, 
kaolin,  fire-clay,  mineral  paint,*etc. 

The  important  United  States  Institutions  in  Pennsylvania 
are  the  magnificent  Post-Office  in  Philadelphia,  built  entirely  of 
granite  at  a  cost  of  $8,000,000  ;  the  white  marble  Custom  House 
at  Philadelphia,  patterned  after  the  Parthenon,  besides  fine  build- 
ings at  Pittsburg  and  other  cities  ;  Fort  Mifflin,  on  the  Delaware 
River;  the  Schuylkill  Arsenal,  where  hundreds  of  men  and 
women  are  engaged  constantly  making  clothing,  bedding,  tents, 
and  various  other  useful  supplies  for  the  United  States  Navy ; 
the  Frankfort  Arsenal  at  Philadelphia,  with  fine  grounds  and 
venerable  trees,  which  is  used  as  a  factory  for  making  cartridges ; 
the  Alleghany  Arsenal,  at  Pittsburg,  which  is  used  for  storing 
ordnance  ;  the  Navy  Yard  at  League  Island,  at  the  junction  of 
the  Delaware  and  Schuylkill  Rivers,  covering  over  nine  hundred 
acres ;  the  Indian  Training  School  at  Carlisle,  where  young 
Indians  of  the  savage  tribes  to  the  number  of  eight  hundred  are 
educated ;  the  United  States  Naval  Asylum  at  Philadelphia, 
where  disabled  officers  and  sailors  are  furnished  with  the  com- 
forts of  life,  and  the  Naval  Hospital  at  the  same  point.  Some  of 
the  oldest  and  most  influential  of  the  educational  institutions  of 


264 


PENNSYLVANIA. 


the  country  are  in  Pennsylvania.  There  is  a  fine  system  of 
canals,  upwards  of  twenty-live  in  number,  built  at  a  cost  of 
$50,000,000,  with  a  total  mileage  of  770  miles,  which  in  the  course 
of  a  year  move  millions  of  tons  of  coal,  lumber,  lime,  and  other 
chief  products.  The  manufactures  of  Pennsylvania  have  an 
invested  capital  of  $500,000,000,  employing  400,000  persons  in 
35,000  factories,  and  making  upwards  of  $900,000,000  in  manu- 
factured goods.  A  large  percentage  of  the  mechanics  are 
skilled,, and  nearly  all  of  them  are  Americans. 

The  Railroads  of  Pennsylvania,  in  1890,  had  a  mileage  of 
over  9,000  miles,  with  a  paid-up  capital  stock  of  over  $700,000,- 
000,  with  roads  and  equipments  valued  at  $1,000,000,000,  an 
annual  freight  tonnage  in  a  year  of  140,000,000  tons,  and  90,000 


MEMORIAL    HALL    AT    PHILADELPHIA. 


employees.  The  population  of  Pennsylvania,  in  1880,  was  4,282,- 
891 ;  in  1890  it  was  5,285,014;  the  next  State  debt  was  $1,788,- 
000  ;  the  real  property  was  valued  at  $1,697,000,000  ;  the  personal 
property  at  $1,464,000,000;  there  were,  in  1892,  1,357  news- 
papers. The  Governor  of  Pennsylvania  is  Robert  E.  Pattison 
(Democrat),  whose  term  expires  January  16,  1895.  The  State  is 
Republican. 

_  The  chief  city  of  the  State  is  Philadelphia,  beautifully 
situated  between  the  Delaware  and  Schuylkill  Rivers,  having 
upwards,  of  two  thousand  miles  of  spacious  streets,  excellent 


PENNSYLVANIA. 


265 


water  facilities,  and  precious  historical  associations.  One  of  the 
notable  features  of  the  life  of  the  people  is  the  vast  army  of 
artisans  and  mechanics  who  own  their  own  houses,  which  they 
are  able  to  do  by  reason  of  the  co-operative  building  associations 
which  in  Philadelphia  are  especially  strong.  Philadelphia  manu- 
factures $500,000,000  worth  of  goods  every  year,  employing 
250,000  persons.  The  more  conspicuous  public  buildings  are 
Independence  Hall,  Carpenters'  Hall,  and  Christ  Church,  which 
Washington  attended,  and  in  whose  graveyard  the  remains  of 
Philadelphia's  adopted  son,  Benjamin  Franklin,  are  interred ; 
the  ten  million  dollar  public  building  (now  in  process  of  con- 
struction), a  magnificent  fire-proof  struc- 
ture, to  be  built  of  Massachusetts  marble, 
with  a  tower  537  feet  high,  surmounted 
by  a  large  bronze  statue  of  William 
Penn,  thirty-six  feet  in  height;  the 
Masonic  Temple,  which  cost  to  build 
$1,500,000;  the  magnificent  bridges  over 
the  Schuylkill  River,  the  Academy  of 
Music,  the  Academy  of  Fine  Arts,  the 
Academy  of  Natural  Sciences,  and  the 
club-houses.  The  population  of  Phila- 
delphia in  1890  was  1,046,964. 

The  second  city  is  Pittsburg  (popu- 
lation 238,617),  which  is  situated  at  the 
junction  of  the  Alleghany  and  Monon- 
gahela  Rivers,  in  the  western  part  of  the 
State.  It  is  one  of  the  leading  manu- 
facturing centres  of  the  country ;  its  in- 
dustries include  iron  and  steel,  brass, 
copper,  glass,  cotton,  paper,  coke,  ships, 
steam-boats,  flour,  and  oil.  The  city  of 
Reading  (population  58,661)  is  an  im- 
portant railroad  centre,  'having  extensive  repair  shops,  besides 
blast-furnaces,  steel  and  brass  works,  and  large  rolling  mills. 
Scranton  (population  75,215)  is  famous  for  its  collieries  and  steel 
works.  Wilkesbarre  (population  37,718)  is  the  centre  of  a  rich 
coal  region.  Lancaster  (population  32,011)  is  the  centre  of  a 
rich  farming  country.  Harrisburg  (population  39,385),  which  is 
the  capital,  is  noted  for  its  rolling-mills  and  various  manufactories. 
Alleghany  City  (population  105,287),  opposite  Pittsburg,  has 
large  and  busy  factories.  There  are  upwards  of  twenty  other 
large  cities  in  this  great  State. 

Pension   Office,  The. —  The  pension  system  was  introduced 
in  1806,  when  surviving  officers  and  soldiers  of  the  Revolutionary 


PHILADELPHIA  "  BECOKD  " 
OFFICE. 


266  PENSION    OFFICE. 

War  were  put  on  the  pension  list,  officers  receiving  one  half  their 
monthly  pay,  and  privates'  eight  dollars  a  month.  Later  the 
pensions  were  reduced  in  the  case  of  officers  to  twenty  dollars  a 
month,  and  of  privates  to  five  dollars  a  month.  This  applied  to 
62,069  men  who  had  served  in  the  Revolution,  to  60,670  officers  and 
soldiers  of  the  War  of  1812,  and  to  21,724  of  the  Mexican  War. 
Widows  of  soldiers  did  not  receive  pensions  until  1861,  when  the 
system  of  pensions  of  the  present  day  was  begun.  The  tendency 
of  the  government  has  been  to  make  these  laws  more  and  more 
generous  to  the  veteran,  but  not  without  calling  forth  opposition 
in  many  quarters.  The  "  Arrears  of  Pensions  Act,"  which 
became  a  law  in  1879,  provided  for  the  payment  of  pensions 
from  the  date  of  discharge  or  disability,  and  not  from  the  date  of 
application,  as  previous  laws  had  provided  in  case  the  claim  was 
not  made  within  a  certain  time.  On  June  30,  1891,  there  were 
676,160  pensioners  borne  on  the  rolls  of  the  bureau,  being  138,216 
more  than  were  carried  on  the  rolls  at  the  close  of  the  fiscal  year 
1890.  They  are  classified  as  follows  :  Widows  and  daughters  of 
Revolutionary  soldiers,  23  ;  army  invalid  pensioners.  413,597 ; 
army  widows,  minor  children,  etc.,  108,537  ;  navy  invalid  pen- 
sioners, 5,449  ;  navy  widows,  minor  children,  etc.,  2,568  ;  sur- 
vivors of  the  war  of  1812,  7,590;  survivors  of  the  Mexican 
War,  16,379;  widows  of  soldiers  of  the  Mexican  War,  6,976. 

The  aggregate  Annual  Value  of  the  676,160  pensions  on  the 
rolls  June  31,  1891,  was  $89,247,200  and  the  average  annual 
value  of  each  pension  was  $139.99 ;  the  average  annual  value 
of  each  pension  under  the  act  of  June  27,1890,  was  $121.51. 
The  total  amount  disbursed  on  account  of  pensions,  expenses, 
etc.,  during  1891  was  $118,548,959.71  as  compared  with  $106,- 
493,890.19  disbursed  during  the  preceding  fiscal  year,  $89,131,968 
in  1889,  $33,780,526  in  1879  and  $28,422,884  in  1869. 

The  Age  of  the  greatest  number  of  pensioners  under  both  the 
old  and  new  law  was  forty-seven  years.  There  are  about  1,208,- 
707  Soldiers  of  the  Union-now  living,  and  of  the  survivors 
520,158  are  now  on  the  pension  rolls.  There  are,  therefore, 
688,549  survivors  who  are  not  pensioned,  and  879,908  deceased 
soldiers  not  represented  on  the  pension  rolls.  Since  1861,  the 
'total  disbursements  for  pensions  has  been  $1,277,261,263.07. 

The  Widows  of  Revolutionary  Soldiers  on  the  pension 
rolls  June  30,  1891,  were  :  Lovey  Aldrich,  aged  91  ;  Elizabeth 
Betz,  aged  88 ;  Mary  Brown,  aged  86  ;  Nancy  Cloud,  aged  78  ; 
Sarah  Dabney,  aged  91 ;  Esther  S.  Damon,  aged  77  ;  Jane  Dun- 
more,  aged  90  ;  Nancy  A..  Green,  aged  73  ;  Sally  Heath,  aged 
86 ;  Nancy  Jones,  aged  77 ;  Rebecca  Mayo,  aged  78  ;  Olive  C. 
Morton,  aged  80  ;  Lucy  Morse,  aged  90  ;  Nancy  Rains,  aged  99; 


POLITICAL    PARTIES.  267 

Patty  Richardson,  aged  90  ;  Meridy  Smith,  aged  86 ;  Mary 
Snead,  aged  75  ;  Asenath  Turner,  aged  86  ;  Nancy  Weatherman, 
aged  81 ;  Anna  Maria  Young,  aged  99. 

The  Widows  of  Presidents  and  Federal  Officers  on 
the  pension  rolls  June  30,  1891,  besides  those  of  Presidents 
Grant  and  Gartield,  who  receive  five  thousand  dollars  a  year, 
were  :  Mrs.  George  H.  Thomas,  Mrs.  W.  S.  Hancock,  Mrs.  John 
A.  Logan,  Mrs.  Francis  P.  Blair,  Mrs.  P.  H.  Sheridan,  Mrs.  John 
C.  Fremont,  Mrs.  George  B.  McClellan,  Mrs.  George  Crook, 
who  receive  two  thousand  dollars  a  year ;  Mrs.  James 
Shields,  Mrs.  S.  Heintzelman,  Mrs.  David  McDougal,  Mrs. 
E.  O.  C.  Ord,  Mrs.  Robert  Anderson,  Mrs.  George  I.  Stannard, 
Mrs.  Gabriel  R.  Paul,  Mrs.  James  E.  Ricketts,  Mrs.  J.  W. 
A.  Nicholson,  Mrs.  L.  H.  Rousseau,  Mrs.  John  F.  Hartranft,  Mrs. 
Roger  Jones,  Mrs.  G.  K.  Warren,  who  receive  twelve  hundred 
dollars  a  year ;  and  Mrs.  David  D.  Porter,  who  receives  twenty- 
five  hundred  dollars  a  year. 

Pernicious  Activity.      (See  Sayings  of  Famous  Americans.) 
Personal  Liberty  Laws.     (See  Fugitive  Slave  Law.) 
Personal  Liberty  Party.     (See  Political  Parties.) 
Pet    Banks.      (See    Panics,    Financial,    also     Bank     of     the 
United  States.) 

Pewter  Muggers.      (See  Political  Parties.) 
Pipe  Laying.     (See  Slang  of  Politics.) 
Plumed  Knight.      (See  Nicknames  of  Famous  Americans.) 
Poker  Charley.      (See  Nicknames  of  Famous  Americans.) 
Polk- Walker  Tariff.     (See  Tariffs  of  the  United  States.) 
Political  Parties.— It  is  a  most  suggestive  fact  that  in  spite 
of  the  large  number  of  political  parties  there  have  been  in  this 
country  in   one  hundred   years  of  national  life,  the   Constitution 
has  remained  practically  unchanged.     When  we  reflect  upon  the 
wide  variety  of  issues,  principles,  platforms,  etc.,  which  have  been 
the  mainspring   of  concerted  political   action,  we  cannot  but  ad- 
mire the  farsightedness  and  sagacity  of  the  men   who  embodied 
in  a  bit  of  manuscript  a  line  of"  civil  and  political  conduct  which 
should  be  religiously  guarded  by  the  people  of  another  age   and 
century.     Below  will  be  found  brief  outlines  of  the  parties  _  and 
factions  of  parties  which  have  figured  upon  the  stage  of  political 
action  since  the  Constitution  was  ratified  : 

Abolition,  Abolitionists.— The  movement  to  secure^the 
abolition  of  slavery  began  in  Pennsylvania  in  1774.  New  York 
espoused  the  cause  in  1785,  Rhode  Island  in  1786,  Maryland  in 
1789,  and  New  Jersey,  Virginia,  and  Connecticut  in  1792.  John 


268  POLITICAL    PARTIES. 

Jay  and  Alexander  Hamilton  were  presidents  of  the  New  York 
society.  Colonization  was  talked  of  as  a  solution  of  the  problem, 
and  in  1829  The  Genius  of  Universal  Emancipation,  a  news- 
paper advocating  "  immediate  "  abolition,  was  published  in  Balti- 
more by  William  Lloyd  Garrison  of  Massachusetts.  Fined  for 
one  of  his  articles,  and  for  non-payment  of  the  fine  imprisoned, 
he  soon  removed  to  Boston,  where  January  1,  1831,  he  began  the 
publication  of  The  Liberator.  He  refused  to  recognize  the  Con- 
stitution, which  it  is  said  he  proclaimed  "  a  covenant  with  death 
and  an  agreement  with  hell."  In  1833  the  National  Anti- 
Slavery  Society  was  formed.  From  this  time  dates  the 
existence  of  the  party  opposed  to  slavery  in  the  United  States, 
at  first  known  as  Abolitionists.  Among  them  were  the  poet 
Whittier,  Wendell  Phillips,  and.  Benjamin  Lundy.  Abolition 
became  a  national  agitation,  and  public  excitement  ran  high. 
Rioting  was  of  frequent  occurrence  ;  in  Alton,  Illinois,  in  1837, 
Elijah  P.  Lovejoy,  an  abolition  editor,  was  mobbed  and  killed, 
and  in  1838,  Pennsylvania  Hall  in  Philadelphia,  was  burned.  In 
1838,  a  portion  ot  the  members  withdrew,  and  formed  the 
"American  and  Foreign  Anti-Slavery  Society."  It  was  princi- 
pally of  these  that  the  Liberty  party,  organized  in  1840,  was 
formed.  In  1848,  the  abolitionists  voted  with  the  Free  Soil 
party,  and  continued  with  them  until  1856,  when  they  supported 
the  Republicans.  Until  the  war  was  fairly  upder  way  the 
"  Garrisonians "  (which  see)  were  in  favor  of  allowing  the 
slave-holding  States  to  withdraw  peaceably,  but  when  fighting 
had  actually  begun,  they  were  among  the  most  ardent  supporters 
of  the  Union. 

Agricultural  Wheel.  —  The  name  of  a  political  association 
of  farmers  in  Prairie  County,  Ark.,  organized  in  1882  for  mutual 
protection  and  advancement.  It  was  eventually  merged  into  the 
Farmers'  Alliance  (which  see). 

Albany  Regency.  —  A  cabal  of  Democrats  in  New  York 
State,  organized  in  1820  for  political  purposes.  Among  its  mem- 
bers at  the  start  were  Martin  Van  Buren,  John  A.  Dix,  and  Silas 
Wright. 

American  Knights. — Before  the  Civil  War  in  the  South, 
there  was  an  organization  known  as  the  Knights  of  the  Golden 
Circle,  whose  members  were  ardent  opponents  of  the  North,  and 
sought  to  separate  the  Southern  States  from  the  Union.  During 
the  war  this  society  secretly  encouraged  Union  soldiers  to  desert  the 
Union  flag,  and  to  aid  the  Confederates  by  giving  them  information 
and  by  recruiting  for  their  ranks.  Among  other  purposes  of  the 
society  was  the  establishment  of  a  Northwestern  Confederacy. 
It  was  re-organized  in  1864,  the  Federal  Government  having  be- 


POLITICAL    PARTIES.  269 

come  possessed  of  a  full  knowledge  of  its  operations.  Under  he 
re-organization  its  name  was  changed  to  the  Order  of  Sons  of 
Liberty,  and  it  was  conducted  after  strict  military  methods. 
Jefferson  Davis,  it  was  claimed,  was  one  of  its  members,  of  whom 
the  total  number  was  from  300,000  to  500,000. 

American  Party. —  This  was  the  name  of  the  party  which 
resulted  from  the  combination  between  the  Whigs  in  1854  and 
the  Know-Nothings.  The  name  was  also  applied  to  a  party 
which  was  founded  in  opposition  to  secret  societies  and  which 
had  a  meeting  at  Columbus,  O.,  in  1872,  and  nominated  Charles 
Francis  Adams  for  President.  The  platform  demanded  the 
prohibition  of  the  sale  of  liquor,  the  withdrawal  of  the  char- 
ters of  secret  societies,  the  use  of  the  Bible  as  a  text-book 
in  the  public  schools,  the  resumption  of  specie  payments, 
government  recognition  of  the  Sabbath,  etc.  Another  party  of 
the  same  name  met  in  convention  at  Philadelphia  in  1887,  and 
put  forth  the  doctrine  that  America  should  be  governed  by 
Americans.  Among  other  things  the  platform  declared  in  favoV 
of  the  restriction  of  immigration,  the  advancement  of  the  Amer- 
ican free-school  system,  the  opening  up  of  the  public  lands  to 
American  settlers,  the  extension  of  the  time  for  naturalization  to 
fourteen  years'  residence,  and  the  refusal  of  public  lands  for 
sectarian  uses.  Curtis,  the  candidate  for  President,  in  1888,  of 
the  American  Party,  polled  1,591  votes,  all  in  California. 

Anti-Federalists.—  One  of  the  first  two  political  parties 
under  the  Constitution,  the  outcome  of  the  Particularists  (which 
see).  They  were  the  opponents  of  the  Constitution  of  the  United 
States,  which  was  then  spoken  of  as  the  Federal  Constitution. 

Anti- Masonic  Party. —This  party  originated  in  conse- 
quence of  the  great  public  excitement  growing  out  of  the  disap- 
pearance of  William  Morgan,  of  Genesee  County,  N.  Y.,  in  1826. 
Morgan  was  about  to  publish  a  book,  exposing  the  secrets  of  the 
Masonic  fraternity.  Not  long  after  he  disappeared,  and  was 
never  heard  from  thereafter.  An  investigation  revealed  the  fact 
that  he  had  been  taken  in  a  closed  carriage  to  Niagara,  and  the 
discovery  of  a  dead  body  a  few  days  later,  which  was  supposed 
to  be  his,  strengthened  the  belief  that  he  was  the  victim  of  foul- 
play.  (See  Morgan.)  Suspicion  pointed  to  the  Masons.  The 
result  of  this  was  an  intense  public  hostility  and  prejudice  to  the 
Masons.  A  party  was  organized  which  nominated  a  ticket  con- 
taining no  Masons,  and  an  Anti-Masonic  conyention  was  held 
which  nominated  a  ticket  pledged  to  oppose  Free-Masonry.  The 
party  increased  in  power,  and  in  1830  fought  hard  against 
Andrew  Jackson,  who  was  a  Mason,  and  at  that  time  a  candidate 
for  the  Presidency.  It  held  a  national  convention  in  1831,  and 


POLITICAL    PABTIB8. 

nominated  its  own  ticket,  receiving  the  electoral  vote  of  Vermont. 
The  party  was  eventually  incorporated  into  the  Whig  party,  in 
which  it  had  considerable  influence. 

Anti-Monopoly  Party. —  This  party  came  into  existence  in 
1884  when  it  met  at  Chicago  and  nominated  Benjamin  F.  Butler 
for  the  Presidency.  Its  platform  declared  in  favor  of  an  Inter- 
State  Commerce  law,  industrial  arbitration,  the  establishment  of 
labor  bureaus,  a  graded  personal  and  income  tax,  and  of  legis- 


LIBERTY     BELL     AT     PHILADELPHIA. 


lation  for  the  fostering  of  agriculture.  Among  other  things  it 
denounced  the  tariff,  and  the  grant  of  public  lands  to  corporations 
of  private  individuals.  It  made  a  coalition  with  the  Greenback 
Labor  party,  and  the  joint  ticket  was  called  the  People's  party. 
On  election  day  the  candidate  polled  about  180,000  votes.  On 
May  20,  1891,  at  a  convention  at  Cincinnati,  a  political  party 
calling  itself  the  People's  party,  in  conjunction  with  representa- 
tives of  various  industrial  organizations,  adopted  a  platform,  since 
known  as  the  platform  of  the  People's  party,  ratifying  the 


POLITICAL    PARTIES.  271 

Ocala  platform  (see  Farmer's  Alliance),  favoring  the  abolition  of 
national  banks,  and  the  issue  of  legal-tender  notes  to  be  loaned 
without  limit  upon  the  security  of  non-perishable  products  and 
upon  real-estate,  interest  to  be  paid  at  two  per  cent,  per  annum, 
demanding  free  coinage  of  silver,  a  direct  vote  for  President 
and  United  States  Senators  and  condemning  alien  ownership  of 
lands,  etc. 

Anti-Nebraska. —  This  name  was  assumed  by  Northern 
Whigs,  who  separated  from  the  Southern  Whigs,  on  the  subject 
of  the  Kansas-Nebraska  Bill,  1853,  drawing  reinforcements  from 
Democrats  opposed  to  slavery  in  the  Territories. 

Anti-Poverty  Society.  —  This  was  a  workingman's  society 
which  was  formed  in  New  York  in  1887  by  Henry  George  and 
Father  McGlynn.  The  latter  was  unfrocked  by  the  Papal  author- 
ities because  he  disobeyed  a  command  not  to  speak  at  a  political 
meeting.  The  doctrine  of  the  society  is  "  that  involuntary  pov- 
erty is  the  result  of  the  human  laws  that  allow  individuals  to  hold 
as  private  property  that  which  the  Creator  has  provided  for  the 
use  of  all."  To  obtain  this,  the  members  proposed  "  the  shifting 
of  all  taxes  from  products  of  labor  to  land  values.  Products  of 
labor  being  produced  by  the  individual,  it  is  confiscation  to  take 
them  away  from  him;  land  values  being  produced  by  the  com- 
munity as  a  whole,  it  is  confiscation  to  take  them  away  from  the 
community."  They  opposed  exclusive  ownership  of  land,  but 
upheld  exclusive  possession  of  land,  and  favored  the  taxation  of 
land  values,  but  not  of  land. 

Anti-Slavery. — Formed  in  1820  in  Philadelphia,  and  was 
opposed  to  the  extension  of  slavery.  (See  Abolitionists.) 

Aristocrats. — Applied  by  the  Republicans  to  a  section  of 
the  Federalists  in  1796.  Also  called  the  British  Party  (which 
see). 

Arm-in-Arm  Convention.  —  The  Republican  convention 
of  1866  was  so  called  from  the  fact  that  the  delegates  from  South 
Carolina  and  those  from  Massachusetts  entered  the  convention 
arm  in  arm. 

Associated  Youth.  —  This  was  a  body  of  young  Federal- 
ists in  1798,  who  put  forth  addresses  enunciating  the  principles 
of  the  party,  and  were  otherwise  active  in  furthering  its  cause. 

Barnburners.  —  A  name  applied  to  the  followers  of  Van 
Buren,  when  in  1844  the  Democratic  party  in  New  York  split, 
the  Barnburners  advocating  the  extermination  of  banks  and  cor- 
porations on  account  of  their  abuses.  The  story  of  a  farmer  that 
burned  his  barn,  in  order  to  free  it  from  rats,  was  often  told  and 
the  purpose  of  the  party  was  likened  to  it.  Later,  they  were 
known  as  the  Softs,  or  Soft-Shells.  Their  opponents,  while  known 


272  POLITICAL    PARTIES. 

as  Barnburners,  were  the  Hunkers ;  while  known  as  Softs,  the 
Hards,  or  Hard-Shells. 

Black  Republicans. — The  attitude  of  the  Republicans 
against  slavery  in  I860  and  their  espousal  of  the  negro's  cause, 
led  to  their  being  styled  Black  Republicans. 

Blue  Light  Federalists. — This  was  a  faction  of  the  Fed- 
eralists, who  were  opposed  to  the  War  of  1812.  The  name  arose 
from  the  fact  that  blue  lights  in  the  harbor  of  New  London, 
Conn.,  were  displayed  as  signals  to  the  British  vessels  at  a  time 
when  Commodore  Decatur  was  trying  to  put  to  sea.  Decatur 
claimed  that  the  signals  were  the  work  of  Federalists,  who  were 
thereafter  called  Blue  Light  Federalists. 

British  Party. — The  proposition  of  the  Federalist  party,  in 
1796,  to  concentrate  and  strengthen  the  power  of  the  govern- 
ment was  styled  by  the  opposition  as  a  British  idea.  The  oppo- 
sition raised  the  cry  of  "Monarch  and  a  King,"  and  in  some 
quarters  the  Federalists  were  known  as  the  British  party. 

Buck-Tails. — The  supporters  of  Madison  in  1816  used  to 
wear  in  their  hats  on  political  occasions  a  portion  of  the  tail  of 
the  deer;  hence  they  were  called  Buck-Tails. 

Carpet-Baggers. —  During  the  reconstruction  period  many 
Northern  Republicans  went  to  the  South  and  settled  there,  and 
by  the  aid  of  negro  votes,  were  elected  to  public  office.  It  was 
suggested  that  as  they  came  in  the  nature  of  transient  guests, 
they  brought  all  their  personal  property  in  a  carpet-bag,  and 
hence  were  called  carpet-baggers. 

Columbian  Party. —  The  name  of  a  new  party  headed  by 
James  Means,  Esq.,  and  other  Bostonians,  in  1892,  whose  object 
is  the  advocacy  of  principles  taken  from  the  Democratic  and 
Republican  platforms.  They  favor  "  honest  money,  a  tariff  for 
revenue  only,  and  the  abolition  of  the  spoils  system."  They  have 
no  organization  and  their  numerical  strength  is  very  slight. 

County  Democracy. —  A  Democratic  faction  in  New  York 
City  formed  originally  of  disgruntled  Tammany  men.  It  has  a 
distinct  organization,  nominates  its  own  ticket,  and  sometimes 
makes  coalitions  with  the  Republicans. 

Democratic  Party.  (See  Democratic-Republican.) — The 
Democratic  party  first  came  into  power  with  the  administration 
of  Andrew  Jackson,  who  was  a  strict  constructionist.  The 
party  genealogy  is  easily  traceable  to  Jefferson,  and  "  Jeffersonian 
simplicity "  has  ever  been  a  watchword  with  it.  Th  Jackson's 
administration,  1829-1833,  the  party  had  a  Southern  wing  con- 
sisting of  a  pro-slavery  element,  which  under  John  C.  Calhoun  of 
South  Carolina,  affirmed  the  doctrine  of  Nullification  (which  see) 
which  declared  the  right  of  any  State  to  nullify  and  make  void 


POLITICAL    PARTIES.  273 

any  act  of  Congress  which  it  deemed  unconstitutional.  This 
doctrine  became  the  basis  of  the  Secession  Movement  of 
1860.  Jackson  made  himself  famous  by  taking  a  firm  stand 
against  this  heresy;  also  for  his  removals  from  office  of  all 
partisans  of  the  previous  administration.  He  was  thus  the 
father  of  the  "Spoils  System."  The  Whigs  with  William- 
H.  Harrison,  of  Ohio,  as  candidate,  made  a  good  fight  against  the 
Democrats  in  1836,  but  Martin  Van  Buren,  of  New  York, 
the  Democratic  candidate,  was  elected.  In  this  administration 
the  Democrats  lost  great  prestige  through  the  ruinous  financial 
policy  put  in  operation  by  Jackson  and  carried  out  by  Van  Buren. 
Jackson  had  chartered  the  State  banks,  whose  notes  in  payment 
for  public  lands  made  a  large  accumulation  of  doubtful  paper 
money  in  the  Treasury.  He  had  directed  the  issue  af  a  specie 
circular  in  1836,  ordering  United  States  agents  to  receive  there- 
after only  gold  and  silver  in  payment  for  land  purchased.  This 
caused  a  run  on  the  banks  in  which  the  specie  was  deposited,  and 
many  of  them  went  under.  (See  Panics,  Financial.) 

It  appeared  that  the  banks  had  used  the  specie  as  loans,  which 
now  had  to  be  called,  a  fact  which  precipitated  the  Panic  of 
1837,  the  most  disastrous  in  the  history  of  the  United  States. 
The  Whigs,  therefore,  with  William  Harrison  again  as  their  can- 
didate, were  victorious  in  the  election  of  1840,  John  Tyler,  a  Cal- 
houn  Democrat,  being  placed  on  the  ticket  with  Harrison.  Van 
Buren  was  the  Democratic  candidate.  Harrison  having  died  soon 
after  his  inauguration,  John  Tyler  became  President,  the 
pro-slavery  faction  of  the  party  became  uppermost,  and  the  party 
in  the  convention  of  1844  was  committed  to  the  annexation  of 
Texas.  The  Democrats  won  again  in  that  year,  chiefly  because 
the  Republican  candidate,  Clay,  was  suspected  of  favoring  the 
annexation  of  Texas.  (See  Liberty  Party.)  James  K.  Polk, 
of  Tennessee,  was  elected.  The  slavery  question  was  now  the 
foremost  one,  and  both  Democrats  and  Whigs  were  afraid  to  com-^ 
mit  themselves  decisively  pro  or  con.  Lewis  Cass,  of  Michigan, 
the  Democratic  candidate  in  1848,  was  defeated  by  Zacbary 
Taylor,  Whig. 

The  Democrats  nominated  Franklin  Pierce,  of  New  Hamp- 
shire, in  1852,  on  the  State  Rights'  doctrine,  and  strict  construc- 
tionist  issue  (See  Constructionist,  Loose  and  Strict),  pledging 
themselves  to  observe  the  Compromise  of  1850,  the  Fugitive 
Slave  Law,  and  to  oppose  any  agitation  of  the  slavery  question. 
The  Whigs  nominated  Winfield  Scott,  of  Virginia.  Pierce  was 
elected.  The  slavery  issue  could  not  be  averted,  and  when  in 
1854,  the  Northern  opposition  to  making  Kansas  a  slave  State 
became  so  pronounced,  the  Calhoun  and  Nullification  element  of 


274  POLITICAL    PARTIES. 

the  Democratic  party  stood  forth  defiantly  in  maintenance  of  their 
views.  The  power  of  the  party  in  the  nation  at  large  was  now 
clearly  on  the  wane,  and  although  in  1856,  its  candidate,  James 
Buchanan,  of  Pennsylvania,  was  elected,  the  final  issue  was  not 
long  postponed. 

In  the  Convention  of  1 860,  the  famous  Charleston  con- 
vention, there  was  a  stormy  time,  the  result  being  a  split  between 
the  Southern  and  Northern  wings.  The  Southerners  re-affirmed 
that  Congress  had  no  power  to  prohibit  slavery  in  the  States  or 
Territories  ;  the  Northerners  affirmed  the  doctrine  of  "  popular 
sovereignty  "  (squatter  sovereignty).  The  Northerners  were  led 
by  Stephen  A.  Douglas,  of  Illinois,  whose  platform  was  adopted, 
whereupon  the  Southern  Democrats  withdrew.  They  met  at 
Richmond,  and  nominated  John  C.  Breckinridge,  of  Kentucky, 
and  Joseph  Lane,  of  Oregon.  The  De..  ocrats  nominated 
Stephen  A.  Douglas,  of  Illinois,  upon  a  platform  which 
sought  to  leave  the  slavery  question  to  the  United  States  Supreme 
Court,  or  to  the  people  of  the  States  and  Territories.  The 
Republican  party,  on  a  platform  to  exclude  slavery  from  the 
Territories  at  any  cost,  nominated  Abraham  Lincoln,  of  Illinois, 
and  Hannibal  Harnlin,  of  Maine.  The  Constitutional  Union 
party  (formerly  the  Know-Nothing)  nominated  John  Bell,  of 
Tennessee,  and  Edward  Everett,  of  Massachusetts.  Lincoln 
received  a  majority  of  all  the  electoral  votes.  During  the  Civil 
War,  the  Democratic  party  opposed  the  government ;  in  its  plat- 
form of  1864,  it  declared  the  war  a  failure,  and  asked  for  a 
cessation  of  hostilities.  It  nominated  George  B.  McClellan, 
of  New  Jersey,  who  was  defeated  by  Lincoln,  who  had  been 
renominated  by  the  Republicans.  In  1868,  the  Democratic  can- 
didate was  Horatio  Seymour,  of  New  York,  and  the  platform 
demanded  the  representation  in  Congress  of  the  Southern  States, 
and  the  power  of  self-government  as  guaranteed  by  the  Consti- 
tution. Ulysses  S.  Grant,  the  Republican  candidate,  was  elected. 
•In  1872,  .the  Democrats  made  notable  gains  in  the  North,  partly 
because  of  the  revolt  of  the  Liberal  Republicans  (which  see)  and 
partly  because  of  the  panic  of  1873.  The  Liberal  Republicans 
nominated  Horace  Greeley,  whom  the  Democratic  Convention 
accepted.  Grant  was  re-elected,  however.v  In  1876,  the  election 
went  into  the  House  of  Representatives,  the  Democratic  candi- 
date, Samuel  J.  Tilden,  of  New  York,  having  184  undisputed 
electoral  votes,  and  Rutherford  B.  Hayes,  the  Republican  candi- 
date, having  172  undisputed  electoral  votes.  The  result 
depended  upon  the  votes  of  Florida,  Louisiana,  South  Carolina, 
and  Oregon.  Congress  appointed  the  Electoral  Commission  (see 
Electoral  Commission),  which  on  investigation  declared  that  the 


POLITICAL  PARTIES: 


275 


276  POLITICAL    PARTIES. 

votes  of  all  the  doubtful  States  should  be  cast  for  Hayes,  who 
was  declared  elected. 

The  Democratic  platform  in  1880  was  strict  constructionist, 
and  in  favor  of  honest  money  and  a  tariff  for  revenue  only,  and 
denounced  the  "fraud  of  1876."  Its  candidate,  Winfield  S. 
Hancock,  of  Pennsylvania,  was  defeated  by  the  Republican 
candidate,  James  A.  Garfield,  of  Ohio.  In  1884,  the  Democrats 
nominated  Grover  Cleveland,  of  New  York,  on  a  loose  con- 
structionist platform,  which  evaded  the  issue  of  protection,  and 
favored  the  imposition  of  only  sufficient  duties  to  meet  the 
expenses  of  the  government  economically  administered.  It 
advocated  Civil  Service  Reform,  a  Chinese  Exclusion  Bill,  and 
the  extension  of  continental  trade  relations.  The  Republican 
candidate  was  James  G.  Elaine.  Cleveland  was  elected ;  the  vote 
of  New  York,  which  was  carried  by  him  by  a  plurality  of  1,047 
in  a  total  vote  of  over  1,100,000,  deciding  the  contest.  Grover 
Cleveland  was  renominated  in  1888,  the  tariff  being  the  chief 
issue,  but  W;as  defeated  by  Benjamin  Harrison,  of  Indiana,  Re- 
publican. 

Democratic- Republican. —This  was  a  name  originating  wit li 
Jefferson,  which  designated  the  Anti-Federalists,  when  the  op- 
position to  the  Federalists  assumed  formidable  proportions.  This 
dual  name  was  chosen  as  expressing  more  completely  the  prin- 
ciples of  their  faith.  They  were  Republicans  in  feeling,  but  they 
believed  in  strict  adherence  to  the  Constitution,  in  the  restriction 
of  the  power  of  the  government,  the  extension  of  the  right  of 
suffrage,  and  in  laws  favorable  to  naturalization.  Practically  the 
same  principles  are  professed  by  the  Democratic  party  of  the 
present  day  (see  Democratic  Party).  Thomas  Jefferson  was 
the  first  President  elected  by  the  Democratic-Republicans.  His 
election  was  brought  about  by  the  popular  disapproval  of  laws 
passed  by  the  Federalists,  among  winch  were  the  obnoxious  alien 
and  sedition  laws  (which  see),  the  chartering  of  the  Bank  of  the 
United  States,  the  levying  of  a  tax  on  spirits,  the  institution  of 
internal  improvements,  and  the  proposition  that  the  government 
should  assume  the  State  debts  contracted  in  the  Revolutionary 
War,  all  of  which  the  Democratic- Republicans  regarded  as  not 
permissible  under  the  Constitution.  They  were  "  strict  construc- 
tionists,"  i.  e.,  they  believed  in  a  strict  construction  of  the  Con- 
stitution being  lived  up  to,  whereas  Hamilton  and  the  Adamses 
were  regarded  as  "  loose  constructionists."  The  Democratic- 
Republicans  took  issue  with  the  Federalists  first  in  1792,  and 
in  the  Third  Congress  succeeded  in  electing  their  candidate  for 
speakev. 

In  the    Election  of   1 800  there  was  no  choice,  and  the  elec- 


POLITICAL    PARTIES.  277 

tion  was  settled  by  the  House  of  Representatives.  Of  the 
electoral  votes  Jefferson  had  seventy-three,  and  Adams  sixty-five. 
After  six  days'  balloting,  Jefferson  was  declared  elected,  ten  States 
voting  for  Jefferson,  four  for  Burr,  and  two  casting  blank  votes. 
Jefferson  was  re-elected  in  1804.  The  party  favored  strict  con- 
struction, the  reduction  of  expenses,  an  embargo  act,  and  the 
purchase  of  Louisiana,  although  the  two  latter  propositions  were 
not  in  accord  with  strict  construction. 

In  1808,  the  party  elected  James  Madison;  it  favored  at 
the  time  a  non-intercourse  act,  a  protective  tariff,  a  war  with 
England,  and  opposed  the  re-chartering  of  the  United  States  Bank. 
Yet  when  the  War  with  England  in  1812  embarrassed  the  gov- 
ernment finances,  the  party  went  back  on  its  position  of  hostility 
to  the  bank  of  the  United  States,  and  now  favored  the  project 
on  the  same  general  lines  as  those  laid  down  originally  by 
Alexander  Hamilton.  This  attitude  weakened  its  hold  upon 
the  people,  and  it  was  divided  into  two  factions,  strict  construc- 
tionists  and  loose  constructionists. 

The  latter  succeeded  in  electing  John  Quinc^  Adams,  in 
1824,  by  a  coalition,  the  election  having  been  thrown  into  the 
House.  Thereafter  the  Democratic-Republicans  were  known 
simply  as  Democrats,  and  the  loose  constructionists  or  Repub- 
licans assumed  the  name  of  National  Republicans  (which  see). 
The  Andre w  Jackson  Democracy  were  in  favor  of  strict  con- 
struction, opposing  the  United  States  Bank,  but  favoring  the 
Sub-Treasury  system.  Jackson  was  the  first  President  who  was 
nominated  on  a  Democratic  platform.  The  hyphenated  name  of 
Democratic-Republicans  was  not  always  used,  but  more  often 
simply  "  Republicans  "  was  the  name  which  designated  the  party 
of  Jefferson.  With  Jackson  the  name  "  Democrats  "  came  into 
vogue,  and  has  been  in  use  ever  since. 

Dough  Faces.  —  This  was  the  name  applied  to  those  Repub- 
licans who  voted  in  favor  of  excluding  the  slavery  clause  from 
the  bill  admitting  Missouri  as  a  State,  and  thereby  affected  the 
Missouri  Compromise.  The  epithet  was  applied  also  after  that  to 
the  friends  of  slavery  in  the  North.  In  the  South  it  was  applied 
to  those  who  were  in  favor  of  the  abolition  of  slavery,  and,  gen- 
erally speaking,  it  is  applied  to  all  people  who  fail  to  live  up  to 
what  are  supposed  to  be  their  natural  convictions. 

Equal  Rights.  —  This  was  the  name  of  the  party  which  in 
1884  nominated  Mrs.  Belva  A.  Lockwood  for  the  Presidency  on 
the  woman  suffrage  platform.  She  polled  between  2,100  and 
2,500  votes  in  a  total  vote  of  ten  million.  There  was  also  a 
party  of  this  name  in  1835,  in  New  York,  made  up  of  Democrats 
who  opposed  the  granting  of  charters  to  the  new  banks  which 


278  POLITICAL    PARTIES. 

sprang  quickly  into  being  when  it  became  known  that  the  charter 
of  the  Bank  of  the  United  States  (which  see)  would  not  be  re- 
newed. They  called  themselves  the  Equal  Rights  Party,  most  of 
the  members  being  Tammany  men.  (See  Loco-Focos.) 

Farmers'  Alliance,  The. —  The  uprising  of  the  farmers  of 
the  country  in  recent  years  has  been  one  of  the  most  remarkable 
of  political  events.  The  importance  of  the  movement  is  admitted 
by  every  prominent  statesman,  and  the  leaders  of  the  two  great 
parties  recognize  in'it  the  possibility  of  its  becoming  a  great  political 
power.  The  mere  fact  that  in  so  short  a  career  the  organization 
has  elected  eight  of  its  members  to  the  House  of  Represen- 
tatives, and  one  of  them  to  the  United  States  Senate,  has  been 
sufficient  in  itself  to  demonstrate  that  it  is  not  only  thoroughly 
organized,  but  that  it  proposes  to  place  candidates  of  its  own 
choosing  in  office.  The  Farmers'  Alliance  grew  out  of  the  old 
Grange,  an  organization  which  came  into  being  for  the  mutual 
protection  of  its  members,  in  1867,  at  St.  Louis.  By  1874  the 
National  Grange  had  eight  hundred  thousand  members,  and 
twenty  thousand  subordinate  granges  or  lodges. 

In  1879,  the  Farmer's  Alliance  of  Texas  was  organized. 
Among  the  purposes  were  :  —  "  To  labor  for  the  education  of 
the  agricultural  classes  in  the  science  of  economical  government 
in  a  strictly  non-partisan  spirit;  to  develop  a  better  state, 
mentally,  morally,  socially,  and  financially ;  to  suppress  personal, 
local,  sectional,  and  national  prejudice,  all  unhealthy  rivalry  and 
all  selfish  ambition."  In  another  part  of  the  declaration  of  pur- 
poses it  is  stated  that  the  laws  of  the  Farmers'  Alliance  "  are 
reason  and  equity  ;  its  cardinal  doctrines  inspire  purity  of  thought 
and  life,  and  its  intentions  are  peace  on  earth  and  good- will 
toward  men."  These  may  be  regarded  as  the  fundamental 
principles  of  the  Farmers'  Alliance. 

The  Texas  Alliance  joined  with  the  Farmers'  Union  of  Louisi- 
ana, in  1887,  and  formed  an  order  called  the  "  Farmers' 
Alliance  and  Go-operative  Union  of  America."  This 
new  order  spread  rapidly  in  the  States  of  Missouri,  Kentucky, 
Tennessee,  North  and  South  Carolina,  Georgia,  Alabama,  and 
Mississippi.  About  this  time,  in  Arkansas,  Mississippi,  Kentucky, 
and  Tennessee,  another  farmers'  organization,  known  as  the  "  Agri- 
cultural Wheel,"  mustered  great  strength.  In  October,  1887,  the 
"  Agricultural  Wheel  "  united  with  the  Alliance  and  formed  the 
"Farmers'  and  Laborers'  Union  of  America."  About 
the  same  time  the  "  National  Farmers'  Alliance  "  organized 
at  Chicago  with  a  membership  which  in  a  little  while  extended 
into  the  States  of  Illinois,  Wisconsin,  Minnesota,  Iowa,  Missouri, 
Kansas,  and  Dakota.  Their  objects  were  stated  to  be  "  to  unite 


POLITICAL    PARTIES.  279 

the  farmers  for  the  promotion  of  their  interests  socially,  politi- 
cally and  financially ;  to  secure  a  just  representation  of  the 
agricultural  interests  of  the  country  in  the  national  Congress  and 
State  legislatures  ;  to  demand  the  prohibition  of  alien  cattle  and 
land  syndicates ;  to  oppose  all  forms  of  monopoly  as  being 
detrimental  to  the  best  interests  of  the  public ;  to  demand  of  our 
representatives  in  Congress  their  votes  and  active  influence  in 
favor  of  the  prompt  passage  of  such  laws  as  will  protect  live 
stock  interests  from  contagious  diseases;  and  to  demand  that 
agricultural  interests  shall  be  represented  by  a  Cabinet  officer." 

It  was  inevitable  that  these  organizations,  having  a  common 
end,  should  come  together  and  formulate  a  declaration  of  princi- 
ples. This  they  did  at  Ocala,  Fla.,  December  2,  1890,  when 
thirty-five  States  and  Territories  were  represented  by  163  dele- 
gates. 

They  adopted  the  following  platform,  which  is  known  as  the 
Ocala  Platform  :  - 

1.  We  demand  the  abolition  of  national  banks;  we  demand  that  the 
government  shall  establish  sub-treasuries  or  depositories,  in  the  several 
States  (see  Sub-Treasuries),  which  shall  loan  money  direct  to  the  people 
at  a  low  rate  of  interest,  not  to  exceed  two  per  cent,  per  annum,  on  non- 
perishable  farm  products^  and  also  upon  real  estate  with  proper  limita- 
tions  upon  the  quantity  of  land  and  amount  of  money.     We  demand 
that  the  amount  of  the  circulating  medium  be  speedily  increased  to  not 
less  than  fifty  dollars  per  capita. 

2.  We  demand  that  Congress  shall  pass  such  laws  as  shall  effectually 
prevent  the  dealing  in  futures  on  all  agricultural  and  mechanical  produc- 
tions, preserving  a  stringent  procedure  in  trials,  such  as  shall  secure 
prompt  conviction  and  the  imposition  of  such  penalties  as  shall  secure 
the  most  perfect  compliance  with  the  law. 

3.  We  condemn  the  silver  bill  recently  passed  by  Congress  and  de- 
mand in  lieu  thereof  the  free  and  unlimited  coinage  of  silver. 

4.  We   demand  the  passage  of  laws  prohibiting  alien  ownership  of 
land,  and   that  Congress  take   prompt  action  to  devise  some  plan  to 
obtain  all  lands  now  owned  by  aliens  and  foreign  syndicates,and  that  all 
lands  now  held  by  railroads  and  other  corporations  in  excess  of  such  as 
are  actually  used  and  needed  by  them  be  reclaimed  by  the  government 
and  held  for  actual  settlers  only. 

5.  Believing  in  the  doctrine  of  equal  rights  to  all  and  special  privi- 
leges to  none,  we  demand  that  our  national  legislation  shall  be  so  framed 
in  the  future  as  not  to  build  up  one  industry  at  the  expense  of  another. 
We  further  demand   a  removal   of  the  existing  heavy  tariff  from  the 
necessaries  of  life  that  the  poor  of  our  land  must  have.     We  further 
demand  a  just  and  equitable  system  of  graduated  tax  on  incomes.     We 
believe  that  the  money  of  the  country  should  be  kept,  as  much  as  pos- 
sible, in  the  hands  of  the  people,  and  hence  we  demand  that  all  national 
and  State  revenues  shall  be  limited  to  the  necessary  expenses  of  the 
government,  economically  and  honestly  administered. 

6.  We  demand  the  most  rigid,  honest,  and  just  State  and  national 
government  control  and  supervision  of  the  means  of  public  communica- 
tion   and  transportation,  and  if  this  control  and   supervision  do  not 


280  POLITICAL    PARTIES. 

remove  the  abuses  now  existing,  we  demand  the  government  ownership 
of  such  means  of  communication  and  transportation. 

In  May,  1891,  a  conference  of  the  National  Farmers'  Alliance 
and  the  Farmers'  Mutual  Benefit  Association  was  held  at  Indian- 
apolis, at  which  the  National  Committee  of  the  People's  Party 
sought  to  bring  about  the  amalgamation  of  the  three  organiza- 
tions, but  failed  to  do  so.  (See  People's  Party.) 

Federal  Party.  —  The  framing  of  the  Constitution  led  to 
political  agitation  in  which  the  people  took  sides.  Those  who 
favored  the  adoption  of  the  Constitution  were  called  Federalists. 
Among  them  were  Washington,  Jefferson,  Hamilton,  Madison, 
Jay,  and  Randolph.  The  Constitution  was  adopted,  and  with 
Washington  as  President,  the  Federal  Party  went  into  power. 
The  financial  projects  of  Alexander  Hamilton  precipitated  a 
strife.  He  proposed  to  pay  the  foreign  debt  in  full,  the  conti- 
nental debt  at  par,  and  that  the  government  should  assume  the 
State  debts.  The  last  proposition  evoked  much  bitterness  of 
feeling,  but  it  was  ultimately  adopted.  Other  measures  intro- 
duced were  the  incorporation  of  the  Bank  of  the  United  States, 
and  a  tax  on  distilled  spirits.  The  administration  also  sought  to 
build  up  the  army  and  navy,  to  institute  a  system  of  Import 
Duties,  and  otherwise  to  strengthen  the  foundations  of  govern- 
ment. Jefferson  had  always  fought  against  the  centralization  of 
too  much  power  in  the  government,  and  the  tendency  in  this 
direction  displayed  in  the  first  eight  years  of  life  under  the  Con- 
stitution drove  him  out  of  the  Federal  party ;  with  him  went 
Madison,  Randolph,  and  other  leaders.  The  Federals  were  over- 
thrown in  1800,  Jefferson  and  Burr  heading  the  rival  ticket.  A 
policy  of  obstruction  was  now  pursued  by  the  Federalists,  but 
the  party  never  regained  its  power,  and  by  18'20  was  practically 
out  of  existence.  Its  supporters  became  National  Republicans, 
the  latter  ultimately  adopting  the  political  faith  of  the  Republican 
party.  (See  Democratic-Republican  and  Democratic  Parties.) 

Free  Sellers. — They  formed  a  party  headed  by  Martin  Van 
Buren  and  Charles  Francis  Adams  as  a  Presidential  ticket  in 
1848.  They  advocated  the  restriction  of  slavery  to  its  limits  at 
the  time.  The  party  was  formed  by  a  coalition  with  the  dis- 
united Liberty  party,  and  fought  hard  for  its  principles,  but  never 
made  much  of  a  showing  at  election  times.  It  was  merged  into 
the  Republican  party  in  1853. 

Garrisonians. — The  followers  of  William  Lloyd  Garrison. 
So  radical  in  their  views  of  slavery  were  they  that  they  claimed 
that  slavery  was  supported  by  the  Constitution.  (See  Abolition 
and  Abolitionists.) 

Grangers. — An  organization  of  farmers,  known   as  Patrons 


POLITICAL   PARTIES.  281 

of  Husbandry,  came  into  existence  in  1867.  Its  object  was  co- 
operation, social,  commercial,  and  educational.  Lodges  called 
Granges  were  established  in  the  Western  farming  localities,  and 
grew  so  powerful  that  in  1873  and  1874  they  succeeded- in  carry- 
ing the  Illinois  and  Wisconsin  legislatures.  Legislation  directed 
against  railroad  extortion  in  freight  and  passenger  rates  was 
enacted.  In  recent  years  the  Grangers  were  merged  into  the 
Farmers'  Alliance.  (See  Farmers'  Alliance.) 

Greenbackers.  —  The  party  which  favored  unlimited  issues 
of  paper  money.  Paper  money,  issued  by  the  government  dur- 
ing the  war  in  payment  for  supplies  for  the  army,  came  to  be 
regarded  in  agricultural  communities  with  greater  favor  than 
coin.  The  Greenbackers,  in  convention  in  1874,  declared  in 
favor  of  the  withdrawal  of  all  bank  currency,  and  of  the  issue 
only  of  national  currency,  in  which  the  national  debt  'should  be 
paid  instead  of  in  gold.  The}'  opposed  the  resumption  of  specie 
payments.  In  1876  the  Greenbackers,  adopting  the  name  of  the 
Independent  party,  nominated  Peter  Cooper,  of  New  York,  for 
the  Presidency.  The  party  polled  a  total  of  about  eighty  thou- 
sand votes.  In  1877  the  party's  vote  in  the  State  elections  \vas 
aboiit /1 85,000.  About  this  time,  in  several  States  the  labor  and 
greenback  parties  united.  In  1878  a  national  convention  adopted 
the  name  of  National  Party.  In  that  year  its  vote  rose  to  one 
million,  and  a  number  of  national  representatives  were  elected. 

In  1880,  James  B.  Weaver,  of  Iowa,  was  nominated  for 
President,  polling  about  three  hundred  thousand  votes  ;  in  1844 
the  nominee  was  Benjamin  F.  Butler,  of  Massachusetts,  who 
was  also  the  Anti-Monopoly  candidate,  the  joint  ticket  being 
known  as  the  People's  party,  and  the  vote  about  one  hundred 
and  thirty  thousand. 

Half-Breed. —  A  contemptuous  nickname  for  a  section  of 
the  New  York  Republican  legislature  of  1881,  the  members 
whereof  refused  to  vote  for  the  candidate  for  United  States 
Senator  put  forward  by  the  Stalwarts,  or  straight-out  Republicans. 
The  name  was  applied,  also,  to  the  opponents  of  Grant  for  a 
third  term  in  1880.  (See  Stalwarts.) 

Hardshells,  Hards. —  These  were  Hunkers,  a  divisi<jn  in 
the  Van  Buren  Democracy  of  1848,  their  opponents  being  Barn- 
burners, or  Soft-shells  and  Softs.  Hard-shell  is  a  name  fre- 
quently applied  to  members  of  the  Baptist  denomination.  (See 
Barnburners.) 

High- Minded  Federalists.— A  name  for  those  Federalists 
who  in  1820  supported  Governor  Clinton.  They  made  frequent 
use  of  the  word  "  high-minded,"  hence  the  appellation. 

Hunkers. —  The  conservative   wing  of  the  Democratic  party 


282  POLITICAL    PARTIES. 

in  New  York  1844-48,  as  distinguished  from  the  Young  Democ- 
racy.     The  word  is    derived  from  the   Dutch    lionk^   meaning 

"  home." 

Know— Nothings. — "Ned  Buntline,"  otherwise  E.  Z.  C. 
Judson,  organized  a  faction  of  the  American  party  in  1853,  in 
New  York,  which  acquired  this  name  from  the  fact  that  when  in- 
terrogated regarding  the  purpose  of  their  organization,  the  mem- 
bers replied  :  "  I  don't  know."  The  campaign  cry  was  "  America 
must  rule  America"  ;  they  were  opposed  to  Romanism,  to  natu- 
ralization, to  putting  any  but  Americans  in  office,  and  were  stout 
supporters  of  the  common  school  system.  In  the  vicinity  of 
Boston  there  are  several  "  Know-Nothing  "  railroad  crossings,  so 
called  from  the  Know-Nothing  candidate  for  governor,  in  1854, 
who,  when  elected,  ordered  all  trains  to  stop  at  such  crossings. 

K.  K.  K.'s,  or  Ku-Klux-Klan. — This  was  a  secret  polit- 
ical society  chiefly  in  the  Southern  Central  States,  which  organ- 
ized in  1868  for  the  intimidation  of  negro  voters.  They  com- 
mitted numerous  outrages  upon  the  negroes,  most  always  at  night. 
They  wore  masks,  and  operated  under  certain  cabalistic  signs 
and  names.  They  had  a  written  constitution,  from  which  it 
appeared  that  their  local  lodges  were  dens ;  the  masters,  cyplops; 
the  members,  ghouls.  A  county  was  a  province ;  governed  by 
a  grand  giant  and  four  goblins.  A  Congressional  district  was  a 
dominion,  governed  by  a  grand  Titan  and  six  furies.  A  State 
was  a  realm,  governed  by  a  grand  dragon  and  eight  hydras. 
The  whole  country  was  the  empire,  governed  by  a  grand  wizard 
and  ten  genii.  They  succeeded  in  their  purpose  of  terrorizing 
the  negroes,  and  their  outrages  became  so  numerous  that  the 
President  wrote  a  message  to  Congress  demanding  their  exter- 
mination. It  took  some  time  to  destroy  their  power,  and  the  inves- 
tigation by  a  Congressional  committee  revealed  a  most  barbaric 
condition  of  affairs.  It  was  said  that  in  the  height  of  their  career 
they  numbered  300,000. 

Liberal  Republican. — In  1871  there  was  a  revolt  in  the 
Republican  party  against  certain  methods  of  administrating  the 
government  at  Washington,  which  they  claimed  were  designed 
more»for  the  political  advancement  and  perpetuity  in  power  of 
General  Grant  than  for  the  welfare  of  the  country.  They  insisted 
that  the  attitude  of  the  administration  toward  the  South  tended 
to  bring  about  a  war  of  races  instead  of  binding  together  the 
whites  and  blacks  by  the  tie  of  a  common  interest.  The  party 
organized  and  in  1876  nominated  Horace  Greeley  for  President, 
who  polled  2,834,079  votes  to  3,597,070  for  Grant.  The  party 
then  went  to  pieces.  (See  Republican  Party.) 

Liberty  Party,  The. —  Its  members  were  abolitionists,  and 


POLITICAL    PARTIES.  283 

their  platform  was  the  abolition  of  slavery.  They  organized  in 
New  York  State,  in  1840.  In  the  Presidential  election  of  18-14, 
their  candidates,  Birney  and  Morris,  polled  in  New  York  votes 
enough  to  defeat  Henry  Clay,  who  was  running  against  Polk.  It 
was  said  that  a  letter  written  by  Clay  expressing  his  desire  for 
the  annexation  of  Texas  (a  slave  State),  led  to  the  nomination  of 
a  ticket  by  the  Liberty  Party,  which  it  had  been  expected  would 
vote  for  Clay.  With  the  vote  of  this  party,  Clay  would  have 
carried  New  York  and  have  been  elected.  The  members  of  the 
party  afterwards  became  Free-Soilers. 

Loco-Focos. —  This  was  an  ingenious  appellation  for  the 
Equal  Rights  party  (which  see),  a  section  of  the  Tammany  De- 
mocracy in  1835,  who  met  in  New  York  City,  and  organized  as  a 
protest  to  the  granting  of  charters  to  new  banks.  Their  oppo- 
nents, straight-line  Democrats  and  Whigs,  also  attended  the  meet- 
ing, and  during  a  disturbance  the  lights  were  put  out.  The 
Equal  Rights  men  relighted  the  room,  using  Loco-Foco  matches. 
The  opposition  thereupon  characterized  them  as  Loco-Focos,  a 
nickname  which  clung  to  them  for  many  years  thereafter,  and 
was  sometimes  applied  to  the  Democratic  party  as  a  whole. 

Martling  Men. —  This  was  a  faction  in  the  Democratic  party 
in  New  York,  in  1807,  the  name  originating  from  their  meeting 
place. 

Nationalists.  —The  Nationalists  get  their  political  creed  from 
Edward  Bellamy's  "  Looking  Backward,"  a  politico-economico 
novel  in  which  the  social  system  of  the  present  day  is  burlesqued 
and  a  new  social  state  is  outlined.  As  the  result  of  the  publica- 
tion of  this  book,  a  small  party  of  men  organized  in  Boston  in 
1888.  The  principles  of  the  party  are  in  favor  of  the  govern- 
ment control  of  all  public  enterprises,  such  as  telegraphs,  tele- 
phones, railroads,  express  companies,  etc.,  the  government  owner- 
ship of  mines,  oil-wells,  etc.,  and  the  municipal  ownership  of 
street  cars,  gas-works,  and  electric  light  plants,  in  fact  the  separa- 
tion of  the  ownership  and  management  of  all  these  enterprises 
from  the  individuals  who  now  control  and  manage  them,  and  the 
giving  of  the  same  into  the  charge  of  the  government.  The 
Nationalists  maintain  that  under  such  a  system  the  public  Could 
be  more  economically  and  more  satisfactorily  served.  The  proiits 
gained  from  these  enterprises  shall  be  the  property  of  the  people, 
although  the  aim  would  be  to  conduct  them  all  at  cost,  so  that 
there  would  be  no  profit.  The  Nationalists  also  would  prohibit 
the  employment  of  child-labor  in  factories,  and  would  make  it 
compulsory  that  children  should  go  to  school  until  they  are 
seventeen  years  old. 

National  Democrat.—  Some  of  the  Democrats  withdrew 


284 


POLITICAL    PARTIES. 


from  the  Democratic  Convention  of  1860,  because  the  Conven- 
tion took  the  position  that  Congress  had  no  power  to  abolish 
slavery  in  the  Territories.  They  took  the  name  of  National 
Democrats,  but  as  a  party  did  not  live  long. 

National  Prohibitionists.  — The  Prohibition  party  sprang 


from  the  Independent 
which  was  instituted  in 
of  the  temperance 
cal  achievement  was 
as  Mayor  of  Portland, 
The  national  organiza- 
until  1869,  when  a  con- 
cago.  The  first  Pro- 
for  the  Presidency  was 
was  nominated  in  a 
lumbus,  February  22, 


Order  of  Good  Templars, 
1851  for  the  furtherance 
cause.     Their  first  politi- 
the  election  of  Neal  Dow 
Me.,    in    1853    and  1854. 
tion    was    not     perfected 
vention   was  held   at  Chi- 
hibition    candidate 
James  Black,  who 
convention  at  Co- 
1872.     Since  then, 


+:.:**** 

TBINITY    CHUBCH,    BOSTON. 


the  party  has  nominated  candidates  for  the  Presidency  at  every 
election.  Their  candidate  in  1888  was  Clinton  B.  Fisk,  who 
polled  li49,907  votes. 

National  Republicans. — They  were  an  outgrowth  of  the 
disaffected  elements  of  the  Democratic-Republican  party.  They 
were  like  the  Federalists  —  loose  constructionists  of  the  Constitu- 


POLITICAL    PARTIES.  285 

tion.  They  sought  to  put  a  check  on  the  naturalization  law, 
favored  a  protective  tariff  and  internal  improvements.  John 
Quincy  Adams  and  Henry  Clay,  by  uniting  their  factions,  brought 
the  party  into  being ;  it  was  later  merged  into  the  Whig  party 
(which  see). 

Native  American.—  This  party  organized  in  New  York  in 
1835  as  the  result  of  Democratic  and  other  influences  to  combine 
into  a  separate  organization  the  foreigners  who  had  been 
naturalized,  in  order  to  capture  control  of  the  municipal  govern- 
ment. The  native  Americans  favored  twenty-one  years'  resi- 
dence as  a  prerequisite  for  naturalization.  It  succeeded  in 
electing  a  mayor  of  New  York,  but  it  was  ultimately  crushed  out 
of  existence  by  overwhelming  majorities  against  it. 

Particularists. —  This  was  an  opposition  faction  to  the  Feder- 
alists, that  along  about  the  close  of  the  Revolution  formulated  a 
doctrine,  which  wras  in  effect  that  there  should  be  no  central 
power  in  the  government  which  could  compel  a  State  to  accept  its 
will.  They  believed  in  a  strong  local  self-government,  and  ip  the 
doctrine  of  State  Rights. 

Personal  Liberty  Party. —  This  was  a  small  party  whose 
political  principles  were  embodied  in  the  idea  that  sumptuary 
laws  were  never  effectual  and  were  an  encroachment  on  individ- 
ual rights  and  privileges.  It  sought  to  bring  about  the  repeal  of 
obnoxious  portions  of  the  excise  laws. 

Pewter  Muggers. — The  name  of  a  Democratic  faction  in 
New  York  in  1828,  so-called  from  an  ale-house  frequented  by  the 
leaders,  where  the  ale  was  drawn  in  pewter  mugs. 

Progressive  Labor  Party. —  This  was  a  faction  in  New 
York,  of  the  Henry  George,  or  United  Labor  Party,  which  left 
the  latter  in  1887,  owing  to  a  disagreement  regarding  party  pur- 
pose. Its  candidate  for  Secretary  of  State  polled  over  7,000 
votes.  There  is  no  apparent  essential  difference  between  its 
platform  and  that  of  the  United  Labor  Party  (which  see). 

Quids. —  A  faction  which1  supported  John  Randolph,  of  Vir- 
ginia, in  1805,  and  when  he  fell  out  with  the  Republican^  was 
merged  with  the  Federals.  They  were  call  "Quids,"  because 
of  the  uncertainty  of  their  attitude. 

Republican  Party.  —  The  name  Republican  was  originally 
adopted  by  the  Democratic  party.  (See  Democratic-Republican 
party.)  It  originated  with  Thomas  Jefferson,  who  thought  it  b.est 
represented  the  principles  of  the  Anti-Federalist  party,  and  bor- 
rowed it  from  the  Republican  movement  in  France  during  and 
after  the  French  Revolution.  The  early  Democrats,  therefore, 
were  called  Republicans,  or  more  specifically,  Democratic-Repub- 
licans. The  nairie  Republican  disappeared  as  applying  to  Demo- 


286  POLITICAL    PARTIES. 

crats  in  1826.  As  applied  to  Republicans,  it  was  first  used  in 
1855,  being  adopted  by  the  Anti-Nebraska  men  as  being  most 
expressive  of  nationality.  The  Republican  party  came  into  exist- 
ence after  the  dissolution  of  the  Whig  party  in  1852.  It  was 
made  up  of  Whigs,  National  Republicans,  the  Free-Soilers,  the 
Know-Nothings,  and  a  few  scattering  Democrats,  all  of  whom 
combined  in  one  homogeneous  organization,  having  for  its  pur- 
pose hostility  to  the  slavery  movement  and  opposition  to  the 
Democratic  party,  which  at  that  time  was  in  the  zenith  of  its 
power. 

In  1856,  the  first  National  Republican  Convention  was  held, 
when  John  C.  Fremont,  of  California,  was  nominated  for  the 
Presidency.  The  platform  declared  against  the  extension  of 
slavery,  against  the  repeal  of  the  Missouri  Compromise,  in  favor 
of  the  admission  of  Kansas  as  a  free  State,  in  favor  of  the  im- 
provement of  rivers  and  harbors,  and  in  favor  of  the  construction 
of  the  Pacific  railroads.  At  the  election  Fremont  was  defeated. 

At  the  next  election,  in  1860,  the  party  was  much  stronger. 
The  lines  between  the  North  and  the  South  were  now  clearly 
drawn.  The  Northerners  were  united  in  the  effort  to  restrict  the 
slave  power,  while  the  Southerners  were  just  as  earnest  in  ex- 
tending it.  The  Republican  platform  in  1860  embodied  the  plat- 
form of  1856,  demanded  the  protective  tariff,  and  condemned  the 
Southern  threats  of  secession.  At  this  convention  Abraham 
Lincoln,  of  Illinois,  was  nominated,  and  in  the  election  received 
a  majority  of  the  electoral  votes.  The  election  of  Lincoln  pre- 
ceded what  had  been  inevitable  for  many  years,  the  secession  of 
the  slave  States.  A  Peace  Congress  was  held,  the  purpose  of 
which  was  to  smooth  over  the  difficulties  by  making  various  con- 
cessions to  the  South,  but  it  failed  of  its  purpose.  (See  Peace 
Congress.)  In  February,  1861,  the  States  which  had  seceded  met 
in  convention  at  Montgomery,  Ala.,  and  formed  the  Confederate 
States  of  America.  Jefferson  Davis,  of  Mississippi,  was  chosen 
President*  Thus  was  the  nation  plunged  into  a  civil  war.  Dur- 
ing the  war  Lincoln's  policy  as  President  was  warmly  supported 
by  the  Republicans,  and  as  warmly  condemned  by  the  Democrats, 
North  and  South.  In  1864,  the  Republican  Convention  renomi- 
nated  Lincoln,  and  adopted  a  platform  declaring  war  upon  slav- 
ery, and  demanding  that  no  terms  should  be  granted  to  the 
rebellious  States  other  than  unconditional  surrender.  Lincoln 
Was  Re-elected,  receiving  all  the  electoral  votes  except  those 
of  New  Jersey,  Delaware,  and  Kentucky.  Soon  after  Lincoln's 
inauguration  he  was  assassinated,  and  Vice-President  Andrew 
Johnson  became  President. 

In  1868   Ulysses  S.  Grant,  of  Illinois,  was  nominated  and 


POLITICAL    PARTIES.  287 

elected  on  a  platform  which  declared  that  the  Republican  States 
by  seceding  had  lost  their  position  in  the  Union  and  could  only 
be  readmitted  on  terms  which  were  satisfactory  to  Congress.  The 
party  declared  its  opposition  to  the  intimidation  of  negro  voters 
by  Southern  Democrats,  and  it  was  instrumental  in  passing  the 
Fifteenth  Amendment  to  the  Constitution,  guaranteeing  the  right 
of  suffrage  without  regard  to  race,  color,  or  previous  condition 
of  servitude.  Grant  Was  Renominated  in  1872  on  a  plat- 
form which  demanded  complete  equality  for  all  men  under  the 
Constitution,  approving  civil  service  reform,  and  the  stamping  out 
of  disorder  in  the  South.  At  this  time  a  revolt  against  the 
Republican  party  was  developed  within  its  own  ranks.  The 
members  of  the  revolting  faction  were  called  Liberal  Republi- 
cans, and  they  organized  as  a  protest  against  the  coercive 
methods  of  Grant's  administration  toward  the  South.  They  met 
in  convention  and  nominated  Horace  Greeley,  of  New  York,  for 
the  Presidency.  Grant  was  re-elected. 

In  1876,  the  Republicans  nominated  Rutherford  B.  Hayes, 
of  Ohio,  on  a  platform  which  rehearsed  the  party's  past  record, 
demanded  that  the  Federal  powers  be  exercised  in  securing  the 
rights  of  American  citizenship  to  all  persons  under  the  Constitu- 
tion, favored  the  resumption  of  specie  payments,  and  accused  the 
Democratic  party  of  treason,  falsehood,  and  sympathy  with 
the  rebel  States.  The  election  was  for  a  long  time  in  doubt,  the 
Republican  candidate  having  172  undisputed  electoral  votes,  the 
Democratic  candidate,  Samuel  J.  Tilden,  having  184  undisputed 
electoral  votes.  The  Electoral  Commission  was  appointed  by 
Congress  to  settle  the  dispute  as  to  who  had  been  elected  (see 
Electoral  Commission).  The  commission,  by  a  vote  of  eight  to 
seven,  declared  Hayes  elected. 

In  1880  the  candidate  of  the  Republicans  was  James  A. 
Garfleld,  of  Ohio,  who  was  nominated  on  a  platform  reviewing 
the  party's  achievements,  denouncing  the  solid  South,  favoring 
the  protection  by  the  Federal  power  of  the  rights  of  all  citizens, 
and  favoring  the  protective  tariff  and  the  restriction  of  Chinese 
immigration.  This  convention  was  celebrated  from  the  fact  that 
it  was  here  that  the  name  of  General  Grant  was  brought  forward 
for  a  third  term  as  President.  Garfield  was  elected,  but  was 
assassinated  in  1881,  and  Chester  A.Arthur  became  President.  In 
1884  the  candidate  was  James  G.  Elaine,  of  Maine,  who  was 
nominated  on  a  platform  which  charged  the  Democrats  with  de- 
frauding the  negro  of  his  vote,  which  emphasized  the  principle 
of  protection,  declared  in  favor  of  the  reduction  of  the  surplus, 
in  favor  of  a  National  Labor  Bureau  and  of  Civil  Service  Re- 
form. The  Democratic  candidate  was  Grover  Cleveland.  Blaine 


288  POLITICAL    PARTIES. 

was  defeated  after  a  contest  remarkable  for  the  personal  abuse  of 
the  candidates  and  for  the  closeness  of  the  vote. 

In  1888,  Benjamin  Harrison,  of  Indiana,  was  nominated 
by  the  Republicans  on  a  platform  which  accused  the  Democratic 
administration  of  the  suppression  of  the  ballot  in  the  South,  of 
obnoxious  tariff  legislation,  the  abuse  of  the  veto  power,  an 
inefficient  foreign  policy,  and  favored  the  protective  tariff  system 
at  any  cost.  Cleveland  was  renominated  by  the  Democrats  and 
the  issue  was  clearly  on  the  question  of  the  tariff.  Harrison  was 
elected,  the  decisive  vote  as  in  the  previous  election  being  that  of 
New  York  State. 

Silver-Greys. —  A  portion  of  the  Whig  party  at  one  time 
withdrew  on  some  question  of  party  policy,  and  as  many- of  them 
were  grey-haired  the  name  of  "Silver-Grey"  was  playfully 
applied  to  them. 

Single  Tax. —  The  principles  of  this  politico-economico  creed 
are  enunciated  in  the  platform  adopted  by  the  Single  Tax  National 
League,  at  New  York,  September  3,  1890  as  follows  : 

We  are  in  favor  of  raising  all  public  revenues  for  national, 
State,  county,  and  municipal  purposes  by  a  single  tax  upon  land 
values,  irrespective  of  improvements,  and  all  the  obligations  of 
all  forms  of  direct  and  indirect  taxation. 

Since  in  all  our  States  we  now  levy  some  tax  on  the  value  of 
land,  the  single  tax  can  be  instituted  by  the  simple  and  easy  way 
of  abolishing,  one  after  another,  all  other  taxes  now  levied  and 
commensurately  increasing  the  Tax  on  Land  Values  until  we 
draw  upon  that  one  source  for  all  expenses  of  government,  the 
revenue  being  divided  between  local  governments,  State  govern- 
ment, and  the  general  government,  as  the  revenue  from  direct 
tax  is  now  divided  between  the  local  and  State  governments,  or 
by  a  direct  assessment  being  made  by  the  general  government 
upon  the  States  and  paid  by  them  from  revenues  collected  in  this 
manner. 

The  single  tax  would  :  — 

1st.  Take  the  weight  of  taxation  off  the  agricultural  districts 
when  land  has  little  or  no  value  irrespective  of  improvements  and 
put  it  on  towns  and  cities  where  bare  land  rises  to  a  value  of 
millions  of  dollars  per  acre.  "2d.  Dispense  with  a  multiplicity  of 
taxes  and  a  horde  of  tax-gatherers,  simplify  government  and 
greatly  reduce  its  cost.  3d.  Do  away  with  the  fraud,  corruption, 
and  gross  inequality  inseparable  from  our  present  methods  of 
taxation,  which  allow  the  rich  to  escape  while  they  grind  the 
poor,  etc.  With  respect  to  monopolies  other  than  monopoly  of  land, 
we  hold  that  when  free  competition  becomes  impossible,  as  in  tele- 
graphs, railroads,  water,  and  gas  supplies,  etc.,  such  business 


POLITICAL   PAKTEES. 


289 


290  POLITICAL    PARTIES. 

becomes  a  proper  social  function  which  should  be  controlled  and 
managed  by  and  for  the  whole  people  concerned  through  their 
proper  government,  local,  State,  or  national,  as  may  be. 

Stalwarts. —  The  name  given  to  the  supporters  of  General 
Grant  for  a  third  term.  The  suggestion  of  stalwartness  comes 
from  the  notion  that  their  support  of  Grant  had  in  it  a  sturdy 
loyalty  to  Republican  principles,  as  exemplified  by  its  renowned 
leader  and  ex-President.  The  Stalwart  faction  were  led  by 
Roscoe  Conkling,  and  their  opponents  were  called  Half-Breeds, 
and  were  led  by  James  G.  Blaine.  The  latter  at  the  time  was 
Secretary  of  State.  (See  Third  Term.) 

Tammany. —  This  powerful  Democratic  political  society  de- 
rived its  name  from  that  of  an  Indian  chief.  Its  organization  is  a 
pattern  of  certain  Indian  customs.  It  has  sachems,  sagamores, 
braves,  and  the  meeting  place  is  a  wigwam.  Established  first  for 
social  purposes,  it  entered  the  political  field  about  1800  to  sup- 
port Aaron  Burr.  It  has  since  then  been  a  very  important  factor 
in  politics,  municipal,  State,  and  national.  Generally  it  is  governed 
by  one  man,  who  dictates  its  policy  and  chooses  its  officers. 
William  M.  Tweed  was  its  boss  in  the  days  of  the  Tweed  ring, 
and  his  overthrow  and  conviction  was  a  severe  blow  to  it.  John 
Kelly  was  its  boss  for  many  years,  and  the  Democratic  party  of 
the  State  and  of  the  nation  could  never  afford  to  ignore  him. 
His  successor  as  boss  is  Richard  Croker,  who  is  one  of  the 
sachems.  The  society  is  nominally  a  charitable  and  social  organi- 
zation, and  is  distinct  from  the  general  committee  of  the  Tam- 
many Democracy,  but  the  outside  world  knows  of  it  only  in  its 
political  relation. 

Union  Labor  Party,  The. —  This  party  met  in  Convention 
in  Cincinnati  in  1887.  Its  platform  favored  the  free  coinage  of 
silver ;  a  direct  vote  for  senators ;  woman  suffrage  ;  a  graduated 
land  and  income  tax;  the  opening  of  Indian  lands  to  settlement; 
government  telegraphs  and  railroads ;  abolition  of  national 
banks,  etc.  The  candidate  of  the  party  for  President  in  1888 
Avas  A.  J.  Streeter,  of  Illinois,  who  polled  148,105  votes,  chiefly 
in  the  West. 

United  Labor  Party,  The. — The  land  tax  theories  of 
Henry  George  (see  Single  Tax)  which  he  first  publicly  pro- 
pounded in  New  York  City  in  1886,  caused  a  large  number  of 
voters  to  rally  to  his  side,  and  when  he  was  nominated  for  mayor 
of  New  York  by  the  United  Labor  Party  thus  formed,  he 
polled  68,110  votes,  against  90,552  for  the  Democratic,  and  60,- 
435  for  the  Republican  candidate.  In  1887,  the  party  nominated 
him  for  Secretary  of  State  of  New  York,  he  polled  70,055  votes, 
against  469,888  for  the  Democratic,  and  452,811  for  the  Repub- 


POLITICAL    PARTIES.  291 

lican  candidate.  The  United  Labor  party  ran  a  candidate  for 
President,  Cowdrey,  in  1888  ;  he  polled  2,808  votes.  It  favors 
the  single  tax,  desires  a  postal  telegraph  (see  Post-Office  Sys- 
tem), State  railroads,  reduction  of  the  hours  of  labor,  prohibition 
of  the  employment  of  children,  simplification  of  legal  procedure, 
etc. 

War  Democrats. — They  were  Democrats  who  supported 
the  J Republicans  in  the  prosecution  of  the  Civil  War. 

Whigs. —  The  Whig  party  sprang  from  the  union  of  the 
dismembered  National- Republican  party  and  of  the  Anti-Masonic 
party  (which  see).  Their  first  candidate  for  President  was 
William  H.  Harrison,  of  Ohio,  in  1836,  but  he  was  defeated 
by  Van  Buren.  At  the  next  Presidential  election  in  1840,  the 
Whigs  were  much  stronger,  and  Harrison  was  elected.  The 
Vice- Presidential  candidate,  John  Tyler,  of  Virginia, was  a  Strict 
Constructionist  Democrat,  and  his  nomination  was  good  politics, 
for  the  reason  that  it  conciliated  a  portion  of  the  Southern 
Democracy.  This  was  the  Hard  Cider  and  Log-Cabin  campaign. 
Harrison's  popularity,  the  Whig  attacks  on  Van  Buren's  Sub- 
Treasury  scheme,  and  the  effect  of  the  panic  of  1837  operated  to 
bring  about  the  success  of  the  Whig  ticket.  In  1844  the  Whigs 
nominated  Henry  Clay,  of  Kentucky,  and  their  platform  advo- 
cated a  national  currency,  protection,  and  ,the  distribution  of 
surplus  revenue  among  the  States.  The  Democrats  nominated 
James  K.  Polk,  on  a  platform  favoring  the  annexation  of  Texas, 
which  was  a  slave  State,  and  which  the  South  was  anxious  to 
bring  into  the  Union.  Clay  would  have  been  elected  probably 
had  not  a  letter  been  published  in  which  he  expressed  himself  in 
favor  of  the  annexation  of  Texas,  thereby  losing  the  votes  of  the 
Anti-Slavery  Whigs  and  the  Abolitionists,  many  of  whom  voted 
with  the  Liberty  party  (which  see).  The  vote  was  very  close. 

In  the  campaign  of  1848,  the  Whig  candidate  was  Zachary 
Taylor,  of  Louisiana.  No  platform  was  adopted,  for  the  reason 
that  the  leaders  were  afraid  to  commit  themselves  on  the  slavery 
issue.  Even  the  Wilmot  Proviso  (which  see)  was  voted  down  as  a 
resolution.  The  Democrats  also  were  backward  about  committing 
themselves  on  the  same  issue  and  voted  down  in  the  convention  a 
resolution  declaring  that  Congress  had  no  power  to  interfere  with 
slavery  in  the  States  or  in  the  Territories.  The  Free-Soilers, 
many  of  whom  had  attended  the  Whig  convention,  put  forward 
their  own  ticket,  consisting  of  Martin  Van  Buren,  of  New  York, 
and  Charles  Francis  Adams,  of  Massachusetts.  The  Liberty 
party  voted  with  them.  The  Whig  ticket  received  a  majority 
both  of  the  free  and  the  slave  States.  The  Whigs  were 
defeated  in  1852,  Winfleld  Scott,  of  Virginia,  being  thecandi- 


292  POPULAR    VOTE    FOB    PRESIDENT. 

date ;  the  platform  was  a  loose  constructionist  one,  carefully 
worded,  endorsing  the  Fugitive  Slave  Law  (which  see)  and  the 
Missouri  Compromise  of  1850.  The  Free  Soil  candidate,  John 
P.  Hale,  of  New  Hampshire,  drew  many  Whig  votes.  The 
Whigs  went  out  of  existence  as  a  distinct  party  in  1856,  when 
they  allied  themselves  with  the  new  Republican  party  (which 
see). 

Popular  Sovereignty.— The  Wilmot  Proviso  (see  Wilmot 
Proviso)  was  opposed  by  the  Northern  Democrats,  led  by  Lewis 
Cass  and  Stephen  A.  Douglas,  on  the  ground  that  slavery  should 
bs  kept  out  of  the  National  Legislature,  and  left  to  the  people  of 
the  States  and  Territories  to  settle  in  their  local  governments. 
This  was  called  the  doctrine  of  popular  sovereignty,  and  by  Cal- 
houn  was  called  "  squatter  sovereignty."  Calhoun  maintained 
that  property,  whether  slaves  or  not,  might  be  taken  by  its 
owner  into  any  State  or  Territory  irrespective  of  the  wishes  of 
the  people.  When  the  Whigs  tried  to  apply  the  doctrine  to  the 
admission  of  Kansas  and  Nebraska,  it  was  apparent  that  these 
States  would  become  free  States,  and  the  Northern  Democrats 
for  the  time  being  came  over  to  the  Southern  view  as  expressed 
by  Calhoun.  Ultimately,  however,  the  adherence  to  this  doctrine 
by  the  Northern  Democrats  led  to  a  crisis  in  the  Democratic 
party,  and  caused  the  split  in  the  Charleston  Convention  of  1860, 
when  the  Southern  wing  of  the  Democracy  left  the  convention, 
and  organized  a  convention  of  its  own,  nominating  Breckinridge 
for  President.  (See  Democratic  Party.) 

Popular  Vote  for  President.  The  subjoined  table  shows 
the  popular  vote  for  President  in  1880,  1884,  and  1888.  (See 
page  293.)  (For  electoral  votes  of  the  States  see  Electoral 
College  under  How  the  President  is  Elected.) 

Population  and  Area. 

Area  of  States.  Cities. 

United  States  Population.    Immigrants. 
Negroes.  Growth  of  Cities. 

Indians.  Centre  of  Population. 

Occupations. 

The  Total  land  and  water  area  of  the  United  States  to-day 
is  3,602,990  square  miles.  The  greatest  breadth  is  from  Quoddy 
Head,  Me.,  to  Cape  Flattery,  Washington  ;  the  greatest  length, 
exclusive  of  Alaska,  is  from  the  forty-ninth  parallel  to  Browns- 
ville, Texas.  The  largest  gross  area  of  any  one  State  is  that  of 
Texas,  265,780  square  miles;  the  smallest  is  that  of  Rhode 
anslld,  1,250  square  miles.  The  District  of  Columbia  originally 


POPULAR   VOTE   FOR   PRESIDENT. 


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POPULATION    AND    AREA. 


had  an  area  of  one  hundred  square  miles,  but  thirty  square  inilc  , 
were  ceded  to  Virginia  in  1846. 

The  following  table  shows  the  land  and  water  area  of  i!i  - 
States  and  Territories,  their  length  and  breadth,  and  thc-ir 
capitals. 


STATES  AND 
TERRITORIES. 

Gross  Area 
in  Square 
Miles. 

Extreme 
Breadth, 
Miles. 

Extreme 
Length, 
Miles. 

Capital. 

52,250 
577,31)0 
113,020 
53,&0 
158,300 
103,925 
4,900 
2,050 
370 
58,680 
59,475 
84,800 
56,650 
36,350 
31,400 
56,025 
82,080 
40,400 
48,720 
33,040 
12,210 
8,315 
58,915 
83,365 
46,810 
69,415 
146,080 
77,510 
110,700 
9,305 
7,815 
122,580 
49,170 
52,250 
70,795 
41,OGO 
39,030 
96,030 
45,215 
1,250 
30,570 
77,650 
42,050 
265,780 
84,970 
9,565 
42,450 
69,180 
24,780 
56,040 
97,890 

200 
800 
335 
275 
375 
3!)0 
90 
35 
9 
400 
250 
305 
205 
160 
210 
300 
400 
350 
?80 
205 
200 
190 
310 
350 
180 
300 
580 
415 
315 
90 
70 
350 
320 
520 
360 
230 
365 
375 
300  " 
35 
235 
380 
430 
760 
275 
90 
425   ' 
340 
200 
290 
365 

330 

1,100 
390 
240 
740 
270 
^75 
110 
10 
460 
315 
490 
380 
265 
210 
210 
200 
175 
275 
235 
120 
110 
400 
400 
340 
280 
315 
205 
485 
185 
160 
390 
310 
200 
210 
205 
210 
290 
180 
50 
215 
245 
120 
620 
345 
155 
205 
230 
225 
300 
275 

Montgomery. 
Sitka. 
Phoenix. 
Little  Rock. 
Sacramento. 
Denver. 
Hartford. 
Dover. 
Washington. 
Tallahassee. 
Atlanta. 
Boisti  City. 
Springfield. 
Indianapolis. 

Arizona  Territory  

California  

Colorado  

Connecticut  

Delaware  

District  of  Columbia... 
Florida  

Georgia  

Idaho  

Illinois  

Indiana  

Indian  Territory  

Iowa  

Des  Moines. 
Topeka. 
Frankfort. 
Baton  Rouge. 
Augusta. 
Annapolis. 
Boston. 
Lansing. 
St.  Paul. 
Jackson. 
Jefferson  City. 
Helena. 
Lincoln. 
Carson  City. 
Concord. 
Trenton. 
Santa  Fe. 
Albany. 
Kaleigh. 
Bismarck. 
Columbus. 
Guthrie. 
Salem. 
Harrisburg. 
Newport  and  Prov. 
Columbia. 
Pierre. 
Nashville. 
Austin. 
Salt  Lake  City. 
Montpelier. 
Richmond. 
Olympia. 
Charleston. 
Madison. 
Cheyenne. 

Kansas    .   

Kentucky  

Louisiana  

Maine  

Maryland    

Massachusetts  

Michigan  

Minnesota  

Mississippi  

Missouri  

Montana  

Nebraska  

Nevada  

New  Hampshire  

New  Jersey  

New  Mexico  Territory  .  . 
New  York  

North  Carolina  

North  Dakota  

Ohio  

Oklahoma  Territory  
Oregon  

Pennsylvania  

Rhode  Island  

South  Carol  ina  

South  Dakota  

Tennessee  

Texas  

Utah  Territory  

Vermont  

Virginia    

Washington  

West  Virginia  

Wisconsin  

Wyoming  

Total  

3,602,990 

2,720 

1,000 

The  Population  of  the  United  States,  according  to  the 
census  of  1890,  is  62,622,250.  In  1880,  it  was  50,155,783  ;  in 
1870,  38,558,371;  in  1860,31,443,321;  in  1850,23,191,876;  in 


POPULATION    AXD    AREA. 


295 


1840,  17,069,453;  in  1830,  12,866,020;  in  1820,  9,633,822;  in 
1810,  7,239,881;  in  1800,  5,308,483;  in  1790,  3,929,214 ;  in 
1780,  2,945,000;  in  1770,  2,312,000.  The  population  of  Alaska, 
which  is  not  included  above,  is  30,329.  (For  population  of 
States  and  Territories  see  each  State  and  Territory.) 

The  Most  Populous  State  is  New  York,  which  has  a  popu- 
lation of  5,997,853  by  the  United  States  census  of  1890,  although 


NATIONAL  ACA'DEMY  OF  DESIGN,  NEW  YORK. 

the  enumeration  completed  in  March,  1892,  by  the  State  authori- 
ties made  the  population  6,479,730. 

The  Least  Populous  State  is  Wyoming,  which  has  a  popu- 
lation of  60,705. 

The  Most  Populous  City  in  the  United  States  is  New 
York.  The  government  census  of  1890  made  the  population 
1,515,301  ;  the  municipal  enumeration  some  months  later  made 
it  1,710,715. 

The  Centre  of  Population  is  at  a  point  twenty  milei 
of  Columbus,   Ind.     It  moves  steadily  westward  at  an  average 
rate   of  fifty  miles  in  ten  years.     In  1800  it  was  situated  at  a 


296  POPULATION    AND    AREA. 

point  eighteen  miles  west  of  Baltimore,  Md.  Centre  of  popula- 
tion as  defined  in  the  Statistical  Atlas  of  1874,  "is  the  point  at 
which  equilibrium  would  be  reached  were  the  country  taken  as  a 
plane  surface,  itself  without  weight,  but  capable  of  sustaining 
weight  and  loaded  with  its  inhabitants,  in  number  and  position  as 
they  are  found  at  the  period  under  consideration,  each  individual 
being  assumed  to  be  of  the  same  gravity  as  every  other  and  con-' 
sequently  to  exert  pressure  on  the  pivotal  point  directly  propor- 
tioned to  his  distance  therefrom."  In  short,  it  is  the  centre  of 
gravity  of  the  population  of  the  country. 

The  Negro  Population  of  the  South  (16  States)  is 
6,944,915;  the  white  population  is  15,493,323.  The  white  popu- 
lation of  the  South  in  1850  was  6,222,418,  the  negro  population 
3,442,238;  in  1860  the  white  population  was  8,097,462,  the  negro 
population  4,215,614;  in  1870  the  figures  were  9,466,353  white, 
4,538,883  negro;  in  1880,  12,578,253  white,  6,099,253  negro. 
These  figures  show  that  the  colored  element  increased  during  the 
decade  at  the  rate  of  13.8  per  cent.  The  white  population  of 
these  States  in  1890  numbered  15,493,323,  and  in  1880,  12,578,- 
253.  It  increased  during  the  decade  at  the  rate  of  23.1  per 
cent.,  or  nearly  twice  as  rapidly  as  the  colored  element. 

Indian  Population.  —  By  the  census  of  1890,  the  Indians 
in  the  United  States,  exclusive  of  Alaska,  numbered  249,273, 
distributed  among  the  States  and  Territories  as  follows:  Arizona, 
16,740;  California,  15,283;  Colorado,  1,034;  Connecticut,  24; 
Florida,  215;  Georgia,  2;  Idaho,  3,909;  Illinois,  1  ;  Indiana,  71; 
Indian  Territory,  8,708;  Five  Civilized  Tribes,  66,289;  Iowa, 
397  ;  Kansas,  1,437;  Louisiana,  132;  Maine,  140;  Massachusetts, 
145  ;  Michigan,  6,991 ;  Minnesota,  7,065  ;  Mississippi,  1,404  ; 
Missouri,  14 ;  Montana,  10,573  ;  Nebraska,  3,864;  Nevada,  4,956  ; 
New  Mexico,  20,521 ;  Pueblos,  8,278;  New  York,  28;  Six  Na- 
tions, 5,304;  North  Carolina,  231;  Cherokees,  2,885;  North 
Dakota,  7,952;  Oklahoma,  5,689;  Oregon,  4,282;  South  Dakota, 
19,845 ;  Tennessee,  10;  Texas,  258;  Utah,  2,489;  Washington, 
10,837  ;  Wisconsin,  8,896;  Wyoming,  1,806;  War  Department 
Apaches,  Mt.  Vernon  barracks,  38  i  ;  Indians  in  prison,  184  ;  total, 
249,273. 

Of  these,  the  Five  Civilized  Tribes  number  68,371,  among 
whom  there  are:  Cherokees,  29,599;  Chickasaws,  7,182;  Choc- 
taws,  14,397 ;  Creeks,  14,632 ;  Seminoles,  2,561.  Other  Indians 
are  the  Pueblos  of  New  Mexico,  who  number  8,278  ;  the  Six  Na- 
tions, Saint  Regis,  and  other  Indians  of  New  York,  5,304 ;  the 
Eastern  Cherokees  of  North  Carolina,  2,885  ;  Indians  taxed  or 
taxable,  and  self-sustaining  citizens,  counted  in  the  general  census 
(98  per  cent,  not  on  reservations),  32,567  ;  Indians  under  control 


POPULATION    AND    AREA. 


297 


of  the  War  Department,  prisoners  of  war  (Apaches  at  Mount 
Vernon  barracks),  384  ;  Indians  in  State  or  Territorial  prisons, 
184. 

The  Cities  Having  100,000  Inhabitants,  or  over,  num- 
ber  twenty-eight.     They   are    as   follows:    New  York,  N.  Y., 


CHINESE     QUARTER     AT    SAN    FRANCISCO. 


1,515,301 ;  Chicago,  111.,  1,099,850;  Philadelphia,  Pa.,  1,046,964; 
Brooklyn,  N.  Y.,  806,343;  St.  Louis,  Mo.,  451,770;  Boston, 
Mass.,  448,477;  Baltimore,  Md.,  434,439;  San  Francisco,  Cal., 
298,997;  Cincinnati,  Ohio,  296,908;  Cleveland,  Ohio,  261,353; 


298  POPULATION   AND    AREA. 

Buffalo,  N.  Y.,  255,064 ;  New  Orleans,  La.,  242,039 ;  Pittsburg, 
Pa.,  238,617;  Washington,  D.  C.,  230,392;  Detroit,  Mich., 
205,876 ;  Milwaukee,  Wis.,  204,468  ;  Newark,  N.  J.,  181,830  ; 
Minneapolis,  Minn.,  164,738  ;  Jersey  City,  N.  J.,  163,003  ;  Louis- 
ville, Ky.,  161,129;  Omaha,  Neb.,  140,452;  Rochester,  N.  Y., 
133,896;  St.  Paul,  Minn.,  133,156  ;  Kansas  City,  Mo.,  132,716; 
Providence,  R.  L,  132,146;  Denver,  Colo.,  106,713;  Indianap- 
olis, Ind.,  105,436  ;  Allegheny,  Pa.,  105,287.  There  are  393  cities 
in  the  United  States  each  having  a  population  of  8,000  or  over. 

Immigration. —  The  immigration  into  the  United  States 
from  the  close  of  the  Revolutionary  War  has  numbered  approxi- 
mately 15,567,000  persons.  Of  these  Germany  sent  4,504,128  ; 
Ireland,  3,481,074 ;  England,  2,430,380  ;  Norway  and  Sweden, 
925,031;  Austria-Hungary,  434,438;  Italy,  388,558;  France, 
366,346  ;  Russia  and  Poland,  324,892 ;  Scotland,  323,823  ;  China, 
290,655;  Switzerland,  171,269 ;  Denmark,  142,517. 

Of  the  immigrants  arrived  during  the  last  decade,  3,205,911,  or 
61.10  per  cent,  were  males,  2,040,702,  or  38.90  per  cent.,  females, 
and  1,121,499,  or  21.4  per  cent,  under  15  years ;  51  per  cent.,  or 
334,229,  from  Ireland  were  males;  49  per  cent.,  or  321,253, 
females.  From  Germany,  836,290,  or  57.6  per  cent.,  were  males, 
and  616,680,  or  42.4  per  cent,  females.  From  England,  Sweden, 
Norway,  and  Scotland,  61  per  cent,  were  males.  From  Hungary, 
94,243,  or  73.8  per  cent,  were  males,  and  33,438,  or  26.2  per 
cent.,  females.  From  Italy,  243,923,  or  79.4  per  cent,  were  males 
and  63,386,  or  20.6  per  cent.,  females. 

Of  the  immigration  of  the  ten  years  ending  1890,  the  Profes- 
sional Class,  which  embraces  musicians,  teachers,  clergymen, 
artists,  lawyers,  physicians,  etc.,  constituted  .056  per  cent.  The 
Skilled  Occupations,  embracing  blacksmiths,  carpenters, 
coopers,  iron-workers,  machinists,  printers,  gardeners,  dress- 
makers, miners,  tailors,  etc.,  represented  10.30  per  cent.  The 
class  "  miscellaneous  occupations  "  constituted  39.63  per  cent.,  and 
includes  laborers,  farmers,  servants,  and  merchants.  47.34  per 
cent,  of  all  had  no  occupations.  Of  this  total  of  2,600,061  ap- 
parently without  occupation,  1,767,284  were  females  and  537,007 
were  under  fifteen  years. 

Occupations*  —  The  occupations  of  the  people  of  this  coun- 
try were  listed  in  the  United  States  census  of  1880  under  four 
general  titles  :  — 

1st  —  Professional  and  personal  service. 

Males. , 2,712,943 

Females 1,361,295 

4,074,238 

2d  —  Trade  and  transportation. 

Males i 1,750,892 

Females 59,364 

1,810,256 


POST-OFFICE    SYSTEM. 

3d — Agriculture. 

Males 7,075,983 

Females 594,510 


299 


7,670,493 


1th  —  Manufacturing  —  Mechanic  arts  and  mining. 

Males 3,205,124 

Females 631,988 

3,837,112 

Total 17,392,099 

Growth  of  Cities.  —  It  is  a  common  saying  that"  God  made 
the  country  and  man  made  the  town."  Statistics  of  the  Ameri- 
can cities  prove  that  this  is  true,  in  this  country,  at  least.  In 
1790  the  population  of  the  United  States  was  almost  entirely  a 
rural  one.  There  were  no  large  cities.  Philadelphia,  the  largest 
city,  had  42,000  inhabitants  ;  New  York  had  38,000  ;  Boston  had 
18,000  ;  Baltimore,  13,000.  The  entire  population  of  the  country 
was  3,589,063.  The  aggregate  population  in  1890  of  the  four 
cities  named  exceeds  this  by  many  thousands.  In  1790,  the  per- 
centage of  people  in  the  cities  was  about  3  in  1 00  ;  the  other  97 
lived  on  the  farms,  or  in  the  towns,  which  averaged  500  to  1,500 
inhabitants.  This  percentage  remained  about  the  same  during 
the  fifty  years  subsequent  to  1790.  Between  1840  and  1850,  the 
cities  began  to  be  more  populous.  Manufacturing,  encouraged 
by  inventions  and  the  protective  tariff,  drew  thousands  from  the 
farms  to  the  cities,  and  by  1850,  when  there  were  44  cities,  the 
percentage  of  people  in  cities  to  those  in  the  country  had  increased 
to  12.5.  Following  is  a  table  showing  the  increase  since  1850  :  — 


Date. 

Population  of 

United  States. 

Cities. 

Population  of 

Cities. 

Percentage  of 
Urban  Population. 

1850 

23,19i,87G 

85 

2,897,586 

12.5 

1860 

31,443,321 

141 

5,072,256 

16.1 

1870 

38,558,371 

226 

8,071,875 

20.9 

1880 

50,155,783 

286 

11,318,597 

22.5 

1890 

62,622,250 

443 

18,235,670 

29.1 

Post-Office  Department.      (See  Federal  Government.) 
Post-Office    System,    The.     (See    Post-Office    Department, 

under  Federal  Government.) 

Post-Riders.  Railway  Mail  Service. 

Early  Postal  Rates.  Ocean  Mail  Service. 

Money-Order  System.          Dead  Letter  Office. 
Receipts  and  Expenses.      Postal  Telegraph. 

Statistics. 

The  first  mention  of  a  central  office  for  the  reception  and  dis- 
tribution of  letters  is  found  in  the  records  of  the  General  Court 
of  Massachusetts  1639,  as  follows  :  "  It  is  ordered  that  notice  be 


300 


POST-OFFICK    SYSTEM. 


A   COLONIAL    POST-OFFICE. 


given  that  Richard  Fairbanks  his  house  in  Boston  is  the  place 
appointed  for  all  letters  which  are  brought  from  beyond  the  seas, 
or  are  to  be  sent  thither  to  be  left  with  him, 
and  he  is  to  take  care  that  they  are  to  be 
delivered  or  sent  according  to  the  direction. 
And  he  is  allowed  for  every  letter  a  penny, 
and  must  answer  all  miscarriages  through 
his  own  neglect  in  this"  kind."  This  arrange- 
ment, however,  was  not  satisfactory,  and 
another  was  soon  after  put  in  operation. 
Virginia  had  a  Local  Mail  Service  in 
1657,  and  in  1672  a  post-route  was  opened 
between  New  York  and  Boston,  trips  being 
made  once  a  month,  and  thirty  years  later, 
every  two  weeks.  There  was  also  a  route 
extending  from  Piscataqua,  or  Portsmouth, 
N.  H.,  to  Philadelphia  via  New  York,  and 
another  from  Philadelphia  to  Williamsburg,  Va.,  and  thence  to 
Charleston,  S.  C.,  but  both  of  these  were  uncertain  in  the  delivery 
of  letters,  which  depended  both  upon  the  condition  of  the 
weather  and  upon  the  peace  of  the  country. 

In  1692,  Parliament  placed  the  mail  service  in  the  colonies  in 
charge  of  a  crown  officer  known  as  the  Deputy  Postmaster- 
General  for  America.  In  1710,  the  central  office  was  estab- 
lished at  New  York.  Still  the  service  was  mismanaged,  and  did 
not  yield  the  revenue  which  it  was  Parliament's  first  object  to 
secure.  Benjamin  Franklin,  who  had  been  comptroller  lor  the  Post- 
master-General, was  upon  the  latter' s  death,  in  1753,  appointed 
to  the  office  by  Parliament.  With  characteristic  energy,  he  im- 
proved the  service  greatly,  instituting  a  penny-post  in  Phila- 
delphia to  deliver  letters  at  residences,  and  a  tri- weekly  mail 
between  Philadelphia  and  New  York.  At  this  time  and 
previously,  letters  were  carried  by  Post- Ride rs,  who  rode  on 
horseback  over  a  given  territory,  collecting  letters  either  from  the 
senders  in  person,  or  from  boxes  placed  along  the  route.  This 
primitive  method  was  in  vogue  until  the  latter  half  of  the  eigh- 
teenth century.  In  1756,  Franklin  sent  the  mail  from  Philadelphia 
to  New  York  by  Stage-coach,  a  plan  which  soon  after  came 
into  general  use.  Packages  were  also  sent  in  the  same  way. 
Although  Franklin  had  increased  the  revenue  so  that  Great 
Britain  made  a  profit  from  the  mail  service  in  the  colonies,  he  was 
removed  on  account  of  his  politics,  but  by  the  Continental 
Congress  was  reappointed.  By  1789,  Wiscasset,  Maine,  and 
Georgia  were  connected  by  post-routes. 

From  1789  to  1799,  the  Rate  for  carrying  a  single  letter  more 


POST-OFFICE    SYSTEM.  3QJ 

than  30  and  under  60  miles  was  eight  cents,  from  60  to  100 
miles,  ten  cents,  from  100  to  150  miles,  twelve  and  one  half  cents, 
from  150  to  200,  fifteen  cents,  and  so  on.  For  carrying  a  double- 
weight  letter,  the  rate  was  twice  as  much.  From  1789  to  1816, 
the  rates  remained  practically  the  same,  excepting  that  the  dis 
tance  a  single  letter  was  carried  for  eight  cents  was  increased.  In 
1794  the  Post-Office  Department  was  created.  From  1816  to 
1845,  the  single  rate  for  30  miles  was  six  cents,  for  longer  dis- 
tances the  rate  was  proportionately  higher.  The  revenue  during 
this  period  was  about  equal  to  the  expenditure.  In  1845  the  rate 
was  reduced  to  the  unit  of  300  miles  for  five  cents;  over  300 
miles  the  rate  was  ten  cents.  The  drop-letter  system  was  now 
introduced,  the  rate  being  two  cents  for  a  single  letter.  In  1851 
the  rate  for  300  miles  was  reduced  to  three  cents.  In  1861,  mer- 
chandise was  admitted  to  the  mails.  From  1851  to  1863,  the 
expense  of  the  department  exceeded  the  income.  In  the  latter 
year,  the  rate  for  a  single  letter  was  three  cents  for  any  dis- 
tance within  the  United  States. 

Postal  Cards  were  introduced  in  1879,  and  letter  postage 
was  reduced  to  three  cents  for  each  half  ounce.  In  1883,  the 
rate  was  still  further  reduced  to  two  cents  for  each  half  ounce, 
and  finally  March  3,  1885,  to  two  cents  an  ounce,  which  is  the 
rate  to-day.  There  is,  and  nearly  always  has  been,  a  Deficit  in 
the  Post-Office  Department,  due  to  its  extraordinary  facilities, 
which  are  maintained  at  great  expense  in  the  transmission  and 
delivery  of  the  mails. 

The  Number  of  Post-Offices  in  1800,  was  903;  in  1820, 
4,500;  in  1840,  13,468;  in  1860,  28,498;  in  1880,  42,989;  in 
1890,62,401;  in  1891,64,329.  The  Post-Office  Department  in 
the  fiscal  year  1891,  handled  about  3,800,000,000  pieces  of  postal 
matter.  The  Receipts  were  $65,931,786  ;  the  Expenditures 
$71,662,463;  of  the  latter,  $14,527,000  were  for  salaries  of  post- 
masters, and  $36,805,621  for  transportation  of  the  mails.  For 
transportation  of  mails  in  1865,  the  expenditure  was  $6,246,884. 
The  whole  number  of  post-offices  in  1891  was  64,329,  of  which 
2,942  were  Presidential  offices.  The  number  of  miles  of  postal 
routes  was  439,027.  In  the  extent  and  perfection  of  its  postal 
system,  the  United  States  leads  all  the  nations  of  the  world. 
The  department  handles  in  a  year  more  postal  matter  than 
GLreat  Britain,  France,  and  Germany  combined.  Great  Britain 
transmits  in  a  year  about  1,500,000,000  pieces,  Germany  about 
1,200,000,000,  and  France  about  700,000,000,  Austria- Hungary 
a-bout  600,000,000. 

Money-Orders  and  Postal  Notes.  —  The  system  of  send- 
ing  money  by  mail  is  known  as  the  Money-Order  System,  and 


302  POST-OFFICE    SYSTEM. 

is   a   separate   department   of   the  Postmaster-General's   admin- 
istration.    It  was  created  in   1871,  and  now  does  an  enormous 
business.     Domestic  Money-Orders  are  issued  by  money- 
order  post-offices,  of  which  there  are  about  9,000,  for  any  amount 
up  to  $100,  at  the  following  rates :  For  sums  not  exceeding  $5, 
five  cents  ;  for  $5  to  $10,  eight  cents  ;  for  $10  to  $15,  ten  cents; 
for  $15  to  $30,  fifteen  cents;  for  $30  to  $40, twenty  cents ; for  $40 
to  $50,  twenty-five  cents;  for  $50  to  $60,  thirty  cents;  for  $60  to 
$70,  thirty-five  cents;  for  $70  to  $80, forty  cents ; for  $80 to  $100, 
forty-five  cents.     When  more  than  $100  is  required,  additional 
orders  must  be  obtained,  but  not  more  than  three  orders  will  be 
issued  in  one  day  to  the  same  payee,  payable  at  the  same  office. 
There  are  now  in  operation  Postal  Conventions  for  the  ex- 
change of  money-orders  between  the   United 
States  and  the  following  countries,  viz:  Switz- 
'  v^lfr'-^"-    v      erland,  Great   Britain    and  Ireland,  Ger- 
many, France,  Italy,  Canada,  and   New- 
foundland,     Jamaica,       New 
K  South.  Wales,   Victoria,   New 


•  a 


THE  FAST  MAIL  TRAIN. 


Zealand,      Queensland,      the     Cape 

Colony,  the  Windward  Islands,  the 

Leeward    Islands,    Belgium,   Portugal,    Tas-  -^ 

mania,    Hawaii,    Sweden,   Norway,   Japan,   Denmark,    and   the 

Netherlands. 

The  rates  of  commission  or  fees  charged  for  the  issue  of  all 
international  money-orders  are  as  follows:  For  sums  not  exceeding 
$10,  ten  cents;  over  $10  and  not  exceeding  $20,  twenty  cents; 
over  $20  and  not  exceeding  $30,  thirty  cents ;  over  $30  and  not 
exceeding  $40,  forty  cents ;  over  $40  and  not  exceeding  $50,  fifty 
cents. 

The  system  of  Postal  Notes  was  created  March  3,  1883. 
inese  notes  will  be  issued  for  sums  less  than  $5,  for  a  fee  of  three 


POST-OFFICE    SYSTEM.  303 

cents,  and  are  payable  to  any  person  presenting  them,  either  at 
the  office  designated  on  the  note,  or  at  the  office  of  issue,  within 
three  months  of  date  of  issue. 

Railway  and  Steamship  Mail  Service. —  The  chief 
agency  in  the  transmission  of  the  mails  is  the  railroads.  Part  of 
them  are  carried  by  steamboats,  and  by  messengers,  as  for 
instance,  from  one  railroad  station  to  another  in  a  city,  or  from  a 
railroad  station  to  a  steamboat.  In  back-country  districts,  where 
the  railroad  does  not  reach  a  town,  post-routes  run  from  the  rail- 
road to  the  town,  and  such  mails  are  carried  by  private  individ- 
uals under  yearly  contracts.  Such  routes  are  known  as  Star 
Routes,  and  are  numerous  in  the  far  West,  where  in  some  in- 
stances they  extend  for  one  hundred  and  one  hundred  and  fifty 
miles,  usually  by  stage-coach.  The  Railway  Mail  Service 
is  in  charge  of  a  General  Superintendent,  who  makes  contracts 
with  railroad  companies,  and  sees  that  they  are  faithfully  per- 
formed. The  railroads  furnish  separate  cars  for  carrying  the 
mails,  which  are  always  run  with  the  fast  through  trains. 

Over  a  few  roads,  as  for  instance,  from  Chicago  to  New  York, 
there  has  been  run  a  Fast  Mail  train,  composed  exclusively  of 
mail-cars,  and  having  the  right  of  Avay  over  all  other  trains, 
thereby  enabling  it  to  make  quick  connections.  Mail-cars  are 
manned  by  separate  crews,  who  assort  the  mail  en  route, 
frequently  working  all  night,  and  who  deposit  it  in  mail-bags 
which  are  transferred  to  mail  wagons  in  waiting  at  the  point  of 
destination.  Quick  and  accurate  work  is  necessary,  as  for 
instance,  where  the  mail-bags  must  be  carried  across  a  city  to  a 
train  scheduled  to  leave  in  half  an  hour.  Mails  between  San 
Francisco  and  New  York  have  been  carried  in  five  days,  but  the 
service  was  so  expensive  that  it  was  discontinued.  The  average 
time  is  now  inside  of  six  days. 

What  is  called  the  New  York  and  Chicago  Fast 
Mail  is  the  most  important  of  the  fast  mail  trains  now  running. 
It  is  made  up  generally  of  five  mail  cars,  one  baggage-car,  one 
express-car  and  one  passenger  car.  The  mail  cars  are  built  of  the 
most  enduring  material,  and  are  provided  with  the  best  of  run- 
ning gear.  Each  car  contains  pouches  of  mail  destined  for  partic- 
ular States  and  the  same  men  assort  it  each  trip.  Each  clerk 
assorts  the  mail  of  particular  States.  The  first  car  carries  all  the 
letters  and  is  known  as  the  letter  car.  The  four  other  cars'  carry 
the  newspaper,  periodical,  and  package  mail,  which  is  so  much 
more  bulky  than  the  letter  mail  that  four  cars  are  required  to 
transport  it. 

The  Run  to  Chicago  is  divided  into  three  sections  :  New 
York  to  Syracuse,  Syracuse  to  Cleveland,and  Cleveland  to  Chicago. 


304  POST-OFFICE    SYSTEM. 

The  crews  begin  work  at  New  York  at  4  r.  M  ,  and  arrive  at 
Syracuse,  if  on  time,  at  5.35  A.  M.  Here  they  remain  until  the 
same  evening  at  8.40,  arriving  the  next  morning  at  New  York  at 
six  o'clock.  So  exacting  are  their  duties  that  the  clerks  on  this 
train  after  making  three  trips,  lay  off  six  days,  their  salaries, 
which  are  from  nine  hundred  to  thirteen  hundred  dollars  per 
annum,  continuing  meanwhile.  At  Syracuse,  a  new  crew  takes 
possession,  who  are  in  turn  relieved  at  Cleveland  by  a  third  crew, 
who  work  until  Elkhardt,  Ind.,  is  reached,  where  a  Chicago  crew 
comes  on  board  and  takes  possession  during  the  rest  of  the  trip. 
The  letter  car,  on  leaving  New  York,  is  manned  by  six  men, 
and  a  chief  clerk  ;  the  other  cars,  by  four  men.  Mail  is  brought 
on  board  at  all  points  where  the  train  stops,  and  at  other  points 
by  an  ingenkms  contrivance  called  a  "  crane,"  which  is  an  up- 
right frame  from  which  is  suspended,  at  the  proper  height,  the 
mail-pouch,  which  a  rod  from  the  letter  car  catches  in  passing; 
and  is  swung  with  its  burden  inside.  The  Railway  Mail  Service 
employs  six  thousand  men. 

The  Foreign  Mail  Service  is  also  in  charge  of  a  Superin- 
tendent, who  makes  contracts  for  the  government  with  the 
transatlantic  steamship  lines.  Within  a  year  some  of  the  com- 
panies have  set  apart  a  room  on  their  ships  where  mail  clerks 
assort  the  mails  from  America  destined  for  foreign  countries, 
thereby  saving  a  day  or  more  in  time.  The  clerks  return  on  the 
next  steamer  to  the  United  States,  and  assort  the  European  mails 
for  American  cities.  Forty-four  steamships  between  Europe  and 
the  United  States  are  authorized  to  carry  the  foreign  mails. 

Dead  Letter  Office,  The. —  Letters  or  packages  which  are 
misdirected,  or  whose  addresses  are  wanting,  or  are  illegible,  or 
directed  to  persons  who  are  no  longer  living,  are  in  every  case 
returned  to  the  senders  if  it  can  be  ascertained  who  they  are. 
If  not,  the  letters  and  packages  are  advertised,  kept  a  certain 
time,  and  then  destroyed  if  not  claimed. 

"Dead"  letters  and  packages  are  received  at  the  Post-Office 
Department  at  Washington  at  the  rate  of  20,000  a  day.  Of  this 
number  5£  per  cent,  contain  money,  which  if  not  claimed, 
reverts  to  the  United  States  Treasury. 

The  Amount  of  Money  found  in  "dead"  letters  averages 
$10,000  a  year.  Some  of  the  "dead"  letters  and  packages  are 
preserved  merely  as  Curiosities.  There  is  a  large  skull  in  the 
collection,  which  was  addressed  to  Prof.  S.  D.  Gross,  Philadelphia, 
and  by  him  refused  on  account  of  the  excessive  postage  due. 
An  interesting  article  on  exhibition  is  a  sheet  compiled  by  the 
Postmaster  at  Boston  showing  one  hundred  variations  in  spelling 
the  word  "  Chicopee,"  as  received  at  the  Boston  Post-Office. 


POST-OFFICE  SYSTEM.  305 

One  letter  is  addressed :  "  Miss  Kate ,  a  girl  about  16 

years  old,  some  gold  in  one  of  her  front  upper  teeth,  who  sud- 
denly left  her  boarding  house  on  Cherry  Street,  Philadelphia, 
about  September,  1885."  Another  is  addressed  :  "To  the  oldest 
Son  of  the  Biggest  Proprietor  of  the  largest  store  in  Crescent 
Mills,  Plumao  county,  Cal."  Another  postmarked  in  North 
Carolina,  is  addressed :  "  P.  M.,  please  to  inquire  of  a  collard 
gentleman  by  name  of  Mack  Henry,  Hiliiaijd,  N.  Y."  Several 
years  ago  a  letter  reached  the  office  addressed  to  "  Jesus  Christ 
in  Heaven."  This  was  accompanied  by  a  juvenile  request  for  a 
new  dress,  in  which  the  writer  might  more  neatly  appear  in  her 
Sabbath -school  class.  A  purse  was  quickly  made  up  by  the  clerks 
for  the  impecunious  little  girl. 

The  Property  Division  of  the  dead-letter  office  handles  all 
the  merchandise  that  finds  its  way  to  Washington,  and  a  motley 
collection  it  is.  Glass  cases  covering  three  sides  of  a  large  room 
are  filled  with  curious  articles  sent  through  the  mails.  Among 
them  is  a  package  from  Germany  which  contained  several  large 
and  ugly-looking  snakes,  one  a  large  rattlesnake  with  four  rattles, 
centipedes  and  horned  toads,  all  of  which  were  received  alive, 
being  sent  in  a  perforated  box.  Another  instance  of  the  Abuse 
of  the  Mails,  is  the  sending  of  a  loaded  revolver  to  a  young 
lady  in  Springfield,  111.,  and  from  there  to  Havana,  111.,  whence 
it  was  returned  to  Washington. 

Postal  Subsidy. — (See  Shipbuilding.) 

Postal  Telegraph,  The. —  As  proposed  by  Postmaster- 
General  Wanamaker,  this  system  has  for  its  purpose  the  estab- 
lishment in  the  Post-Office  Department  of  a  Bureau  for  the 
deposit,  transmission,  and  delivery  of  postal  telegrams  through 
the  postal  service.  All  post-offices  where  the  free-delivery  ser- 
vice now  exists,  and  the  offices  of  the  telegraph  companies  with 
which  contracts  would  be  made,  would  be  postal  telegraph  stations. 
In  addition,  the  Postmaster -General  would  be  empowered  to 
designate  from  time  to  time  other  post-offices  and  postal  telegraph 
offices,  and  to  contract  with  one  or  more  telegraph  companies 
now  in  existence,  or  that  may  become  incorporated  for  a  period 
of  ten  years,  for  the  transmission  of  postal  telegrams  on  condi- 
tions and  at  rates  of  tolls  set  forth  in  the  bill.  Postal  telegrams 
are  to  be  sent  in  the  order  of  filing,  except  that  government 
telegrams  take  precedence.  As  with  the  mails,  no  liability  is  to 
attach  to  the  Post-Office  Department  oil  account  of  delays  or 
errors. 

Postal  Notes.     (See  Post-Office  System.) 

Postal  Subsidy  Act.     (See  Shipbuilding.) 


306 


PRESIDENTS    OF    THE    UNITED    STATES. 


Postal  Telegraph.     (See  Ship-building.) 
Practical  Politics.     (See  Slang  of  Politics.) 
Pre-Adamite.     (See  Nicknames  of  Famous  Americans.) 
President  de  facto.      (See  Presidents  of  the  United  States.) 
Presidential  Electors.     (See  How  the  President  is  Elected.) 
Presidential  Flag.     (See  Flags  of  the  United  States.) 
Presidents   of  *  the    United    States. 

Sobriquets.  Burial  Places. 

Ancestry.  Professions. 

Title  of  President.  Religious  Convictions. 

Presidential  Term. 

There  have  been  twenty-three  Presidents.  It  should  be  specified 
that  in  the  subjoined  list,  the  early  Republicans,  so-called,  were 
really  Democrat- Republicans  (see  Political  Parties),  and  they  are 
connected  by  direct  lineage  with  the  Democrats  of  the  present 
time. 


Name. 

Politics. 

Residence. 

Inaugurated. 

ri 
m 

S 

0 

it 

< 

Year. 

Age. 

1 

2 
3 

4 
5 
6 
7 
8 
9 
10 
11 
12 
13 
14 
15 
10 
17 
18 
19 
20 
21 
22 
23 

George  Washington  
John  Adams  

Federalist  
Federalist  
Republican.  .  . 

Virginia  

1789- 
1797 
1801 
1809 
1817 
1825 
1829 
1837 
1841 
1841 
1845 
1849 
1850 
1853 
1857 
18C1 
1865 
18C9 
1877 
1881 
1881 
1885 
1889 

57 
62 
58 
58 
59 
58 
62 
55 
68 
51 
50 
65 
50 
49 
66 
52 
57 
47 
54 
49 
51 
48 
55 

1799 
1826 
1826 
1836 
1831 
1848 
1845 
1862 
1841 
1862 
1849 
1850 
1874 
1809 
1868 
1805 
1875 
1885 

1881 
1886 

67 
91 
83 
85 
73 

«1 
78 
80 

08 
72 
54 
66 
74 
65 
77 
50 
67 
63 

49 
56 

Massachusetts  

Thomas  Jefferson  

Republican  — 
Republican  — 
Republican*... 
Democrat  
Democrat  
Whig  
Democrat  
Democrat  
Whig  

Virginia 

James  Monroe  

Virginia  
Massachusetts  
Tennessee  

*John  Quincy  Adams  
Andrew  Jackson  
Martin  Van  Buren  
William  H.  Harrison  — 
John  Tyler  
James  K.  Polk  

New  York  
Ohio  
Virginia  

Zachary  Taylor  

Louisiana    

Millard  Fillimore  

"Whig  

Franklin  Pierce  

Democrat  
Democrat  
Republican  — 
Republican  — 
Republican.  .  .  . 
Republican  .  .  . 

New  Hampshire  .  .  . 
Pennsylvania  

James  Buchanan  
Abraham  Lincoln  

Andrew  Johnson  

Ulysses  S,  Grant  
Rutherford  B.  Hayes  .  .  . 
James  A.  Garfleld  
Chester  A.  Arthur  
Grover  Cleveland  

Dist.  of  Columbia. 
Ohio  

Republican  
Republican  — 
Democrat  
Republican  

Ohio  ,  .  .  .  . 
New  York    .... 

Benjamin  Harrison  

Indiana  

Sobriquets  of  the  Presidents The  national  weakness 

for  nicknames  has  always  inflicted  itself  upon  the  President  of  the 
United  States.  As  a  rule  they  have  originated  with  the  common 
people,  and  have  been  characterized  by  an  easy  familiarity  pos- 
sible only  under  a  "  government  of  the  people,  for  the  people, 

*John  Quincy  Adams  was,  properly  speaking,  a  National-Republican :  his  sympathies 
were  distinctly  Federalistic. 


PRESIDENTS    OF    THE    UNITED    STATES.  307 


&  ^ Q* 


AUTOGRAPHS    OF    THE    PRESIDENTS.     (SEE    PAGE    313.) 


308  PRESIDENTS    OF    THE    UNITED    STATES. 

and  by  the  people."  Frequently,  however,  nicknames  have  been 
applied  to  the  chief  executive  by  political  enemies,  and  in  such 
cases,  have  differed  from  the  nicknames  applied  by  the  people 
in  that  they  have  been  sarcastic,  and  sometimes  expressive  of 
scorn.  Washington  has  always  been  familiarly  spoken  of  as  the 
"Father  of  His  Country  ";  the  origin  of  the  name  is  not 
known,  but  its  significance  is  apparent.  He  was  also  called  the 
"  American  Fabius,"  from  the  fact  that  his  system  of  military 
warfare  was  similar  to  that  of  the  Roman  General  Fabius,  who 
used  to  harass  the  enemy  by  a  system  of  marches  and  counter- 
marches and  surprises,  a  practice  which  charactcrizc'd  the  cam- 
paigns of  Washington.  He  was  also  called  the  "  Cincinnatus 
of  the  West,"  from  the  fact  that  while  he  was  in  retirement  on 
.his  farm  at  Mt.  Vernon,  in  1797,  he  was  called  upon  to  take  com- 
mand of  the  army  at  a  time  when  it  looked  as  if  the  United 
States  would  go  to  war  with  France.  Some  of  his  opponents 
sarcastically  spoke  of  him  as  the  "Step-Father  of  His 
Country."  He  was  also  spoken  of  as  the  "  Atlas  of  Amer- 
ica," because  he  had  to  carry  the  new  world  on  his  shoulders. 
The  "  Deliverer  of  America,"  the  "  Saviour  of  His 
Country,"  were  other  nicknames  for  Washington. 

John  Adams  was  called  the  "  Colossus  of  Indepen- 
dence," from  the  fact  of  his  intimate  connection  with  the 
adoption  of  the  Declaration  of  Independence. 

Thomas  Jefferson  has  frequently  been  referred  to  as  the 
"  Sage  of  Monticello,"  from  the  fact  that  he  lived  at  Monti- 
cello,  his  country  seat,  alter  he  retired  to  private  life,  but  managed 
to  keep  in  touch  with  politics.  As  he  was  very  tall  and  slender, 
the  political  wags  used  to  speak  of  him  playfully  as  "  Long 
Tom." 

President  Madison  was  called  the  "  Father  of  the  Consti- 
tution," from  the  fact  that  he  offered  a  resolution  in  a  Virginia 
legislature  which  resulted  in  the  convention  of  1787,  and  led  the 
way  to  the  adoption  of  the  Constitution  of  the  United  States. 
President  Monroe  was  sometimes  spoken  of  as  "  Last  Cocked 
Hat,"  because  he  used  to  wear  a  cocked  hat,  a  precious  relic  of 
the  Revolutionary  period. 

John  Quincy  Adams,  while  in  Congress,  earned  such  a  reputa- 
tion for  oratory,  and  so  interested  the  members  by  his  speeches 
that  they  dubbed  him  "  Old  Man  Eloquent." 

Andrew  Jackson  is  well  known  even  to  this  day  as  "  Old 
Hickory."  One  of  his  soldiers  once  made  the  remark  that  the 
General  was  tough,  and  afterwards  it  was  remarked  that  he  was 
tough  as  hickory;  hence  he  was  called  "Hickory."  As 
time  went  on  his  admirers  affectionately  spoke  of  him  as  "  Old 


CD 

(Z 


PRESIDENTS    OF    THE    UNITED    STATES.  309 

Hickory,"  and  that  became  his  nickname.  The  Creek  Indians 
spoke  of  him  as  "  Big  Knife,"  and  "  Sharp  Knife,"  and  in 
consequence  of  his  victory  over  the  British  at  New  Orleans,  he 
has  been  spoken  of  as  the  "  Hero  of  New  Orleans." 

President  Martin  Van  Buren  acquired  a  reputation  for  political 
shrewdness  and  trickery,  a  fact  which  resulted  in  those  who  knew 
his  methods  well  calling  him  the  "  Little  Magician."  He 
was  also  styled  the  "Wizard  of  Kinderkook,"  that  having 
been  his  birthplace.  He  was  also  called  "  Little  Van,"  "  King 
Martin  the  First,"  and  "  Mattie." 

President  William  Henry  Harrison  was  dubbed  "  Tippe- 
canoe," from  the  fact  that  he  fought  a  battle  at  the  junction  of 
the  Tippecanoe  and  Wabash  Rivers,  in  1811.  In  the  Hard-Cider 
campaign  Harrison  Avas  affectionately  spoken  of  as  the  "  Hero 
of  Tippecanoe."  "  Old  Tip,"  was  another  name  for  him. 
Harrison  was  also  referred  to  as  the  "  Washington  of  the 
West,"  because  in  the  War  of  1812  he  pursued  the  British  into 
Canada,  and  was  as  active  in  this  war  against  the  British  as 
Washington  had  been  in  the  Revolution. 

President  John  Tyler's  political  opponents  called  him  the 
"Accidental  President,"  because  by  the  death  of  Harrison, 
shortly  after  his  inauguration,  Tyler,  who  was  Vice-President, 
succeeded  to  the  Presidency. 

James  K.  Polk,  having  been  born  in  the  same  State  as  Andrew 
Jackson,  who  was  "Old  Hickory,"  was  dubbed  "Young 
Hickory,"  there  being  not  only  a  relation  between  their  birth- 
places, but  also  a  resemblance  in  their  political  creeds. 

President  Zachary  Taylor  was  dubbed  "Old  Rough  and 
Ready  "  on  account  of  his  fighting  qualities  as  displayed  during 
the  Mexican  War.  He  was  also  spoken  of  as  "  Old  Buena 
Vista,"  from  the  incident  at  the  battle  of  Buena  Vista  in  which 
he  uttered  the  famous  phrase  "  A  Little  More  Grape,  Captain 
Bragg."  Another  famous  name  for  him  was  "Old  Zach." 

President  Millard  Fillmore  was  a  man  of  aristocratic  ten- 
dencies, old  school  courtesy,  and  polished  manners,  a  fact 
which  gave  rise  to  the  appellation,  the  "  American  Louis 
Philippe."  It  is  also  said  that  in  physique  he  was  not  unlike 
the  French  King. 

Franklin  Pierce  was  called  "Purse"  for  short,  that  being 
the  pronunciation  of  the  family  name  in  New  England. 

President  James  Buchanan  was  the  "  Old  Public  Func- 
tionary." The  name  originated  from  his  own  allusion  to  him- 
self in  a  message  to  Congress  in  1859.  He  was  also  called 
the  "  Bachelor  President,"  and  "Old  Buck." 

Abraham  Lincoln  was  "Abe,"  »  Old  Abe,"  "  Honest  Old 


310  PRESIDENTS    OF    THE    UNITED    STATES. 

Abe, "the  "Sectional  President,"  which  he  was  called  by  the 
Southerners.  "  Uncle  Abe  "  was  applied  to  him  by  the  negroes 
after  the  Emancipation  Proclamation.  "  Massa  Linkum  " 
was  also  of  negro  origin.  "  Father  Abraham  "  originated  in 
the  famous  war  song,  "  We  Are  Coming,  Father  Abraham,  Three 
Hundred  Thousand  Strong,"  and  the  "Fail  Splitter  "  from  the 
fact  that  in  his  early  life  he  had  split  rails.  The  "  Martyr 
President"  is  another  name  for  him,  heard  to  this  day. 

President  Andrew  Johnson  was  called  "Sir  Veto"  on  account 
of  his  having  vetoed  so  many  bills.  "Andy"  was  a  familiar 
abbreviation  of  his  name. 

Ulvsses  S.  Grant  is  more  popularly  known  as  the  "  Hero  of 
Appomattox,"  while  among  his  soldiers,  during  the  war,  he 
was  familiarly  spoken  of  as  "  Old  Three  Stars,"  from  his  rank 
of  lieutenant-general  as  indicated  by  the  stars.  When  he  was 
brought  forward  for  the  third  time  as  President,  his  enemies 
called  him  the  "  American  Caesar."  In  consequence  of  his 
having  refused  General  Buckner  at  Fort  Donelson,  in  1862,  no 
terms  other  than  "  unconditional  and  immediate  surrender,"  the 
phrase  "  Unconditional  Surrender  "  was  sometimes  applied 
to  him.  The  opposition  press,  by  way  of  ridicule,  altered  this 
phrase  variously  into  "Union  Safeguard,"  "Unprece- 
dented Strategist,"  "Uniformed  Soldier,"  "Unques- 
tionably Skilled,"  "United  States,"  "Uncle  Sam," 
etc.,  his  own  initials  being  U.S.  The  "Butcher  from  Ga- 
lena "  was  an  epithet  applied  to  General  Grant  by  Charles 
O'Connor,  of  New  York,  in  the  latter's  letter  accepting  the  nomi- 
nation of  the  Democratic  party  in  1872.  The  allusion  was  to  the 
large  number  of  soldiers  who  were  killed  in  Grant's  campaign. 

President  Rutherford  B.  Hayes  was  frequently  styled  by  the 
Democratic  press  the  "President  de  Facto,"  on  account 
of  the  fact  that  it  was  claimed  that  Samuel  J.  Tilden,  his  oppo- 
nent for  the  Presidency,  had  been  counted  out,  and  was  actually 
President  de  Jure. 

President  Garfield  was  called  the  "  Martyr  President, "from 
the  fact  that  he  was  assassinated,  the  "Teacher  President," 
because  as  a  young  man  he  had  been  a  teacher,  and,  later,  a  college 
president.  The  "  Canal  Boy  "  was  another  name  applied  to 
him  while  a  candidate  for  President. 

Among  his  intimate  friends,  President  Chester  A.  Arthur  was 
known  as  «  Chet,"  and  "  Our  Chet,"  an  abbreviation  of  his 
Christian  name.  On  account  of  his  polished  manners  and  his 
elegant  dress,  he  was  sometimes  called  the  "  First  Gentleman 
of  the  Land." 

President  Cleveland  has  been  variously  nicknamed  "  Grover," 


PRESIDENTS    OF    THE    UNITED    STATES. 


313 


AUTOGRAPHS    OF    THE     PRESIDENTS.     (SEE    PAGE    307.) 


314  PRESIDENTS    OF    THE    UNITED    STATES. 

"  Our  Grover,"  "  Old  Grover,"  and  he  was  called  the 
"  Man  of  Destiny,"  on  account  of  his  remarkable  rise  to 
political  power.  The  "  Stuffed  Prophet,"  the  "Claimant," 
the  "Dumb  Prophet,"  and  the  "Pretender,"  are  appel- 
lations which  were  often  applied  to  him,  after  he  retired  to 
private  life,  by  the  New  York  $uti.  During  the  1884  campaign 
the  Republicans  derided  him  as  the  "Buffalo  Hangman," 
because  as  sheriff  in  that  city,  he  once  had  charge  of  the  execu- 
tion of  a  murderer.  They  also  contemptuously  referred  to  him  as 
the  "  Buffalo  Sheriff." 

President  Benjamin  Harrison  has  been  spoken  of  frequently 
as  "Grandfather's  Hat,"  as"  Ben,"  and  as  "  B.  Harri- 
son." This  nickname  of  "  Grandfather's  Hat "  arose  from  the 
fact  that  the  cartoonists  represented  him  as  wearing  a  hat  as 
large  as  himself  and  labelled  "  Grandfather's  Hat."  «  Baby 
McKee'3  Grandfather"  is  another  of  his  nicknames. 

Professions,  Education,  and  Ancestry.  — Of  the  twenty- 
three  Presidents  of  the  United  States,  John  Adams,  T.  Jefferson, 
Madison,  John  Quincy  Adams,  Jackson,  Van  Buren,  Tyler,  Polk, 
Fillmore,  Pierce,  Buchanan,  Lincoln,  Hayes,  Garfield,  Arthur, 
Cleveland,  and  Benjamin  Harrison  were  Lawyers  at  the  time  of 
their  election.  Monroe  had  no  regular  profession,  but  gave  his 
time  to  Politics.  William  II.  Harrison,  Taylor,  and  Grant  were 
Soldiers  ;  Andrew  Jackson  was  an  Ex-Soldier  and  Politi- 
cian. 

John  Adams  and  J.  Q.  Adams  were  graduates  of  Harvard 
College  ;  Madison  was  a  graduate  of  Princeton  ;  Jefferson 
and  Tyler  were  graduates  of  William  and  Mary's  College, 
and  Monroe  once  studied  there.  Washington,  Taylor,  Fillmore, 
and  Cleveland  attended  the  Common  School.  Jackson,  Lin- 
coln, and  Johnson  were  Self-Taught.  Polk  graduated  at  the 
University  of  North  Carolina  ;  William  A.  Harrison 
attended  Hampden-Sydney  College ;  Pierce  was  a  grad- 
uate of  Bowdoin  College  ;  Buchanan  of  Dickinson  Col- 
lege ;  Grant  of  West  Point  Military  Academy  ;  Hayes 
of  Kenyon  College  ;  Garfield  of  Williams  College  ; 
Arthur  of  Union  College  ;  Benjamin  Harrison  of  Miami 
College.  Washington,  the  Adamses,  Madison,  Harrison,  Tyler, 
Taylor,  Fillmore,  Pierce,  Lincoln,  Johnson,  Garfield,  and  Cleve- 
land were  of  English  ancestors ;  Monroe,  Grant,  and  Hayes  of 
Scotch  ancestors;  Jackson,  Polk,  Buchanan,  and  Arthur  of 
Scotch-Irish,  ancestors,  and  Van  Buren  of  Dutch  ances- 
tors. 

Washington,  Jefferson,  Madison,  Monroe,  Taylor,  were  sons 
of  Planters;  John  Adams,  Jackson,  Van  Buren,  Polk,  Fill- 


PRESIDENTS    OP    THE    UNITED    STATES.  81 5 

more,  Pierce,  Lincoln,  Garfield,  and  Benjamin  Harrison  were 
sons  of  Farmers.  J.  Q.  Adams'  father  was  a  Lawyer  ; 
William  H.  Harrison's,  a  Statesman  ;  Tyler's,  a  Jurist  ; 
Buchanan's  and  Hayes',  Merchants  ;  Johnson's,  a  Sexton  ; 
.Arthur's  and  Cleveland's,  Clergymen. 

Burial  Places. —  Washington  is  buried  at  Mount  Ver- 
non,  on  the  Potomac  River,  about  sixteen  miles  from  Washing- 
ton. The  inner  tomb  is  made  of  freestone,  which  has  a  stone 
panel  bearing  the  inscription  :  "  I  am  the  resurrection  and  the 
life  ;  he  that  believeth  in  me,  though  he  were  dead,  yet  shall  he 
live."  The  outside  structure  is  twelve  feet  high,  entered  by  an 
iron  gateway  beneath  a  Gothic  arch,  over  which  is  a  marble  slab 
on  which  is  inscribed,  "  Within  this  enclosure  rests  the  remains 
of  General  George  Washington."  There  is  an  ante-chamber 
where  are  two  marble  sarcophagi.  Washington's  has  a  sculptured 
lid  on  which  is  carved  an  American  shield  suspended  from  the 
American  flag.  •  The  flag  hangs  in  festoons  and  over  it  rests  an 
eagle,  with  wide  open  wings,  perched  upon  the  shield;  cut  in  the 
marble  is  the  name  "  Washington."  The  remains  of  Martha 
Washington  lie  in  the  other  sarcophagus,  which  is  made  of  marble 
and  -is  eight  feet  high. 

President  John  Adams  is  buried  at  Quincy,  Mass.,  beneath 
the  portico  of  the  Unitarian  Church.  The  tomb  is  in  the  cellar, 
and  is  built  in  behind  huge  blocks  of  rough  granite  ;  the  door  is 
a  marble  slab  with  massive  clasp,  padlock,  and  hinges.  In  the 
church  proper  is  the  memorial  tablet  to  John  Adams  and  his  wife, 
on  the  top  of  which  is  a  life-sized  bust  of  the  President ;  the  tablet 
is  inscribed  with  an  elaborate  eulogy  of  his  services  as  a  citizen 
and  a  public  servant. 

Thomas  Jefferson  is  buried  at  Monticello,  Va.,  in  the  family 
cemetery.  There  is  a  granite  obelisk,  built  of  three  pieces  of 
rough  granite,  designed  from  a  drawing  made  by  Jefferson. 
The  inscription  on  the  pedestal  is  as  follows  :  — 

Here  lies  buried 

THOMAS    JEFFERSON, 

Author  of  the  Declaration  of  American  Independence, 

Of  the  Statute  of  Virginia 

For  religious  freedom, 

And  father  of  the 
University  of  Virginia. 

On  the  northern  side  of  the  base  stone  is  inscribed:  — 

Born  April  2, 

1743,  O.  S. 
Died  July  4,  1826. 

Mrs.  Jefferson  is  buried  close  by. 


316  PRESIDENTS    OP    THE    UNITED    STATES. 

James  Madison  is  buried  at  Montpelier,  Va.  The  lot  is 
entered  by  an  iron  gate  with  the  name  "MADISON."  The 
monument  is  a  plain  but  graceful  obelisk  built  of  seven  pieces  of 
stone.  The  total  height  is  twenty  feet  six  inches.  The  inscrip- 
tion is  without  allusion  to  his  public  services.  His  wife,  Dolly 
Payne,  is  buried  in  the  same  lot.  The  monument  was  erected 
twenty-two  years  after  Madison's  death,  by  private  subscrip- 
tion. 

James  Monroe  lay  buried  in  New  York  city,  in  the  Second 
Avenue  Cemetery,  until  1858,  when  the  body  was  removed  to 
Richmond,  Va.,  and  deposited  in  Hollywood  Cemetery,  in  a 
lot  which  was  bought  by  Governor  Wise  in  behalf  of  the  State 
for  the  purpose  of  utilizing  it  as  the  burial  place  of  Virginia's 
Presidents.  The  vault  is  made  of  brick  and  granite  and  is  five 
feet  under  ground,  being  covered  by  a  block  of  Virginia  marble 
on  which  rests  the  sarcophagus,  a  granite  block  shaped  like  a 
coffin.  On  the  sarcophagus  was  a  metal  plate  on  which  was 
inscribed,  "James  Monroe,  Governor  of  Virginia,  1799  to  1802. 
1811.  President  of  the  U.  S.,  1817  to  1825."  This  plate  was 
stolen  and  never  recovered.  The  monument  is  enclosed  by  an 
elaborate  framework  of  iron,  which  has  the  appearance. of  a 
Gothic  temple.  Mrs.  Monroe  lies  buried  at  Oak  Hall,  Va.,  with 
other  members  of  her  family. 

John  Quincy  Adams  is  buried  at  Quincy,  Mass.,  in  the 
same  vault  with  his  brother  beneath  the  portico  of  the  First 
Unitarian  Church.  There  is  also  a  tablet  to  his  memory  on  the 
wall  of  the  church  to  the  right  of  the  pulpit,  on  the  top  of  which 
is  a  bust  of  the  statesman.  The  inscription  on  the  tablet  is 
elaborate  and  eulogistic  of  the  services  the  deceased  rendered  to 
the  nation.  His  wife,  Louise  Catherine,  is  buried  by  his  side. 

Andrew  Jackson  is  buried  at  the  Hermitage,  eleven  miles 
from  Nashville,  Tenn.,  on  the  Cumberland  River.  The 
remains  lie  within  a  structure  about  fifteen  feet  high,  surmounted 
by  a  dome  and  supported  by  eight  Doric  columns  ;  the  interior 
has  a  vaulted  ceiling  in  white.  At  the  base  of  the  structure  is 
a  pyramid  of  white  marble  resting  on  a  square  base  beneath 
which  is  the  vault.  There  is  nothing  on  the  General's  tomb 
indicating  that  he  was  President.  The  inscription  is  simply 
"General  Andrew  Jackson,  Born  March  15,1707,  Died  June  8, 
1845."  The  inscription  on  the  tomb  of  his  wife,  which  was 
written  by  General  Jackson  himself,  speaks  of  her  as  the  wife  of 
President  Jackson. 

The  remains  of  President  Martin  Van  Buren  lie  in  Reformed 
Church  Cemetery  at  Kinderkook,  N.  Y.  The  shaft  is  made 
of  plain  granite  rising  from  the  block  four  feet  square,  resting  on 


PRESIDENTS  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES.  817 

a  pedestal.  The  height  of  the  monument  is  fifteen  feet.  The 
inscription  is  very  plain. 

President  William  H.  Harrison  lies  buried  in  a  field  over- 
looking the  Ohio  River  at  North  Bend,  O.  The  remains 
were  originally  buried  at  Washington.  The  vault  is  built  of 
brick  and  extends  five  feet  beneath  the  surface,  the  upper  part  of 
it  being  two  feet  above  the  surface.  The  vault  is  opened  by  an 
iron  door  and  the  descent  is  made  on  wooden  steps.  Remark- 
able to  relate,  there  is  no  inscription  on  the  tomb  although  there 
is  a  wide  marble  slab  on  the  lintel  of  the  door,  apparently  placed 
there  that  the  name  of  the  distinguished  dead  might  be  thereon 
inscribed.  The  Ohio  Legislature  has  several  times  rejected  bills 
to  erect  a  suitable  monument. 

President  Tyler  is  buried  at  Hollywood  Cemetery, 
Richmont,  Va.,  in  the  President's  section  near  the  grave  of 
President  Monroe.  There  is  neither  monument  nor  stone  to 
mark  the  grave,  although  thirty  years  ago  the  Virginia  Legisla- 
ture passed  resolutions  for  the  erection  of  a  suitable  monument. 

James  K.  Polk  is  buried  in  Nashville,  Term.,  in  the  front  yard 
of  an  old  mansion  on  Union  Street,  corner  of  Vine.  The  monu- 
ment is  twelve  feet  square  and  about  twelve  feet  high,  and  is 
built  of  limestone;  it  stands  in  the  centre  of  a  square,  enclosed  by 
an  iron  railing.  In  the  centre  of  the  monument  is  a  square  stone 
block  about  five  feet  high,  on  three  sides  of  which  is  engraved  an 
inscription  eulogistic  of  the  dead. 

President  Taylor  lies  buried  in  the  Ta3^1or  Cemetery,  Louis- 
ville, Ky.  The  monument  is  a  handsome  granite  shaft,  on  the 
top  of  which  is  a  marble  statue  of  President  Taylor,  bareheaded, 
and  in  full  uniform.  The  monument  was  erected  by  the  State, 
and  is  thirty-seven  feet  in  height.  The  inscription  is  simple  and 
brief;  on  the  base  are  the  initials  "  Z.  T.,"  and  on  one  of  the 
panels  of  the  shaft  are  the  last  words  of  the  President:  "  I  have 
endeavored  to  do  my  duty,  I  am  ready  to  die;  my  only  regret  is 
for  the  friends  I  leave  behind  me."  On  the  middle  section  is  a 
bronze  profile  of  the  General;  on  the, west  side  of  the  shaft  are 
the  American  eagle  and  coat  of  arms  in  relief;  on  the  other  side 
is  a  list  of  the  battles  in  which  the  General  fought :  Fort  Harri- 
son, Black  Hawk,  Okeechobee,  Palo  Alto,  Resaca  de  la  Palma, 
Monterey,  and  Buena  Vista. 

The  remains  of  Millard  Fillmore  are  buried  at  Forest  Lawn 
Cemetery,  near  Buffalo,  N.  Y.,  and  the  obelisk  is  a  polished 
red  granite  twenty-two  feet  high.  On  the  base  is  carved  in  large 
letters  "  FILLMORE."  The  inscription  is  very  simple  and  there 
is  nothing  to  indicate  that  the  deceased  was  President  of  the 
United  States. 


318  PRESIDENTS    OF    THE    UNITED    STATES. 

Franklin  Pierce  is  buried  at  Concord,  N.  H.,  in  the  Minot 
Cemetery.  The  monument  is  of  Italian  marble  and  is  graceful 
in  shape  and  construction ;  at  the  base  is  carved  the  word 
"  PIERCE."  The  inscription  is  very  simple  and  no  mention  is 
made  of  the  fact  that  the  deceased  was  President  of  the  United 
States. 

President  James  Buchanan  lies  buried  at  Lancaster,  Pa.,  in 
Woodward  Hill  Cemetery.  The  vault  consists  of  large  lime- 
stone flags  upon  which  rests  a  block  of  New  Hampshire  granite 
seven  feet  long,  three  feet  seven  inches  wide  and  a  foot  thick. 
The  monument  is  in  the  Roman  style  ;  a  single  block  of  Italian 
marble,  having  on  one  side  the  name  "  BUCHANAN,"  on  the 
other  side  an  inscription  which  states  that  the  deceased  was  the 
fifteenth  President  of  the  United  States. 

The  remains  of  Abraham  Lincoln  are  buried  at  Springfield, 
111.,  in  Oak  Ridge  Cemetery.  The  structure  is  made  of  Quincy 
granite,  and  is  119x72  feet;  there  is  a  main  platform,  which  is 
approached  by  four  staircases  from  either  corner,  the  platform 
itself  being  72£  feet  square,  and  forming  the  base  of  the  shaft  and 
pedestal,  which  support  the  statuary,  and  in  themselves  occupy  a 
space  of  54  feet  square.  From  the  centre  of  the  base  rises  the 
shaft,  twelve  feet  square  at  the  base,  and  eight  feet  square  at  the 
top,  to  a  height  of  98  feet  from  the  platform,  with  a  winding 
staircase  inside ;  the  total  height  is  120  feet.  On  the  pedestal 
are  heroic  bronze  groups  representing  the  Navy  and  the  three 
departments  of  the  Army  of  the  United  States;  there  are  shields 
of  polished  granite  inscribed  with  the  names  of  the  States,  which 
encircle  the  square  between  the  bronze  groups ;  on  the  Southern 
side  of  the  shaft  rests  a  pedestal  on  which  stands  a  bronze  statue 
of  Lincoln  in  a  double-breasted  Prince  Albert  coat,  holding  in 
his  left  hand  a  scroll  marked  "  Proclamation,"  and  in  his  right 
hand  a  pen.  The  right  hand  rests  upon  the  American  flag,  at 
the  bottom  of  which  is  a  laurel  wreath.  In  the  base  of  the  mon- 
ument are  two  chambers,  one  of  which  is  a  memorial  hall,  where 
relics  of  Lincoln  are  exhibited.  In  the  other  chamber  were  origi- 
nally placed  the  remains  of  Lincoln.  The  sarcophagus  where  the 
remains  are  now  interred  has  on  one  end  the  name  "LINCOLN," 
encircled  by  a  wreath  of  oak  leaves  and  acorns;  beneath  this,  in  a 
semi- circle,  is  the  sentiment :"  With  malice  toward  none,  with 
charity  for  all."  The  monument  was  dedicated  Oct.  15,  1874, 
President  Grant  and  the  Cabinet  being  present.  The  monument 
cost  $250,000,  which  was  raised  by  public  subscription. 

Andrew  Johnson's  remains  are  buried  near  Greenville, 
Tenn.,  under  a  monument  beneath  which  rest  also  the  remains 
of  his  wife.  Both  lie  in  an  arch  from  the  roof  of  which  rises  the 


PRESIDENTS    OF    THE    UNITED    STATES.  319 

monument,  first  the  base,  then  the  plinth,  which  is  a  large  block 
of  marble,  with  inscription  appropriate  to  each  of  the  deceased. 
Accompanying  that  of  the  President  is  the  line,  "  His  faith  in  the 
people  never  wavered."  Above  is  carved  an  open  Bible,  seven- 
teen by  eleven  inches,  on  the  pages  of  which  rest  a  hand,  as  it 
were  the  hand  of  the  President  taking  the  oath.  Above  the 
Bible,  hung  from  the  upper  moulding,  is  a  carved  scroll  of 
the  Constitution,  inscribed  in  raised  letters,  "  Constitution  of  the 
United  States."  There  now  rises  a  shaft  of  marble  thirteen  feet 
high,  at  the  top  of  which  is  an  American  flag,  overspreading 
the  shaft  for  a  distance  of  six  feet,  and  surmounted  by  an  eagle 
with  outstretched  wings.  The  monument,  as  is  observed  from 
an  inscription  over  the  graves,  was  the  tribute  of  the  President's 
children. 

The  remains  of  President  Grant  lie  in  the  tomb  in  Riverside 
Park  in  a  picturesque  spot  overlooking  the  Hudson  River,  near 
120th  Street,  New  York  City.  They  were  there  placed  on 
August  8,  1885,  under  the  escort  of  the  grandest  military  and 
civic  display  ever  seen  on  this  continent.  The  vault  is  built  of 
red  and  black  brick,  with  a  semi-circular  roof  surmounted  in  front 
by  a  capstone.  Two  solid  oak  doors,  with  bronze  hinges,  lock, 
and  knob,  open  into  the  tomb,  where  another  door  of  open  iron 
work  meets  the  view.  The  remains  of  the  President  are  in  a 
steel  case  made  of  the  finest  Bessemer  steel,  with  an  oval  top, 
and  air-tight,  water-tight,  and  burglar-proof.  The  steel  case 
rests  on  a  marble  pedestal  supported  by  a  stone  base  on  the  floor 
of  the  vault,  which  is  a  few  feet  lower  than  the  entrance.  Inside 
of  the  steel  case  is  a  second  casket,  of  cedar,  copper-lined,  which 
contains  the  remains.  The  outside  case  has  a  solid  gold  plate, 
with  the  name  IT.  S.  Grant.  The  steel  case  as  built  had  a  door 
at  one  end  to  admit  the  casket.  When  it  was  finally  closed, 
bolts  of  steel  were  welded  along  its  side. 

President  Garfield  lies  buried  at  Lake  View  Cemetery,  Cleve- 
land, O.  The  Martyr  President  has  the  most  elaborate  memo- 
rial erected  over  the  remains  of  any  American  public  man, 
although  its  cost  was  not  as  great  as  that  of  the  monument  to 
Lincoln.  It  is  a  huge  tower,  148  feet  high  and  50  feet  in  diame- 
ter, at  the  base  of  which  is  a  smaller  structure,  45  feet  high  and 
20  feet  square,  through  which  the  tower  is  entered.  The  exterior 
of  the  monument  is  constructed  of  Ohio  sandstone.  The  tower 
has  a  conical  roof,  with  twelve  niches  for  statues  allegorical  of 
the  months  of  the  year.  Beneath  is  a  rim  of  shields,  each  with  a 
coat  of  arms  of  the  States.  The  smaller  structure  has  four  win- 
dows and  the  door,  above  which  and  extending  on  the  sides  are 
panels  with  terra  cotta  reliefs  representative  of  the  career  of  the 


320  PRESIDENTS    OF    THE    UNITED    STATES. 

deceased  as  teacher,  soldier,  statesman,  President,  and  lying  in 
state.  Another  figure  shows  him  a  boy  at  the  country  school, 
still  another  as  chief  of  staff  at  Chickamauga,  another  as  making 
a  public  speech  in  the  open  air,  another  as  taking  the  oath  as 
President,  and  so  on.  The  memorial  temple  is  the  chamber  in- 
side the  tower.  At  the  doorway  is  an  allegorical  figure  of  War, 
seated,  and  a  figure  of  Peace,  with  an  olive  branch.  Beneath 
this  is  the  inscription  :  — 

Erected  by  a  grateful  country 
In  memory  of 

JAMES   ABRAM    GARFIELD, 

20th  President  of  the  United  States  of  America, 
Scholar,  Soldier,  Statesman,  Patriot; 

Born  19th  Nov.,  1831; 
Dec'd  A.  D.  Sept.  19th,  1881. 

In  the  centre,  rising  from  a  pedestal,  is  a  striking  heroic  figure 
of  Garfield  represented  as  addressing  Congress.  The  statue, 
which  is  of  marble,  is  encircled  by  eight  large  granite  columns, 
surmounted  by  a  dome.  On  the  frieze  is  an  allegorical  represen- 
tation of  the  funeral  procession,  the  figures  being  Columbia,  Law, 
Justice,  Concord,  groups  of  States,  Literature,  War,  and  Labor. 
In  the  roof  of  the  dome  are  winged  figures  of  North,  South,  East, 
and  West.  The  remains  of  the  President  rest  beneath  the  statue, 
and  are  reached  by  a  spiral  stairway.  The  temple  is  lighted  by 
windows  between  which  are  panels  representing  the  thirteen 
States.  The  contributions  for  the1  erection  of  this  beautiful 
memorial  temple  amounted  to  $134,755. 

The  remains  of  President  Arthur  lie  in  the  family  plot  in 
Rural  Cemetery,  at  Albany,  N.  Y.  The  sarcophagus  is  of 
stone,  a  single  block  of  granite,  eight  by  four  by  three  feet,  with- 
out ornamentation,  but  highly  polished.  It  rests  on  a  pedestal 
also  of  granite.  On  the  base  is  a  bronze  tablet  inscribed  with  : 

CHESTER  AI.AN   ARTHUR, 
Twenty-first  President  of  the  United  States. 

Born  October  5,  1830. 
Died,  November  18,  1886. 

Also  on  the  base  is  the  name,  in  raised  letters,  "  Arthur." 
Standing  at  the  foot  of  the  monument  and  leaning  against  it  is  a 
beautiful  bronze  figure  of  Sorrow,  of  heroic  size,  with  folded 
wings,  and  in  the  act  of  placing  a  palm-leaf  on  the  tomb.  The 
monument  cost  eleven  thousand  dollars,  and  was  contributed  by 
the  President's  friends.  The  remains  of  his  wife,  Ellen  Lewis 
Herndon,  are  in  a  sarcophagus  close  by. 

Religious  Convictions.  — Washington,  Madison,  Monroe, 
W.  H.  Harrison,  Tyler,  Taylor,  Arthur  were  Episcopalians. 


PRESIDENTS    OP    THE    UNITED    STATES. 


321 


G.E.NEBAI,    GEOBGE    WASHINGTON. 


322  PRESIDENTS    OF    THE    UNITED    STATES. 

"  An  atheist  in  religion,  and  a  fanatic  in  politics  "  —  this  was  said 
of  Thomas  Jefferson  by  the  Federalists  when  he  was  elected  to 
the  Presidency  in  1800.  Many  of  them  actually  felt  that  the 
country  would  go  to  ruin  under  Jefferson's  administration.  As 
to  Jefferson's  atheism,  that  has  ever  been  a  matter  involving 
grave  doubt.  Whatever  his  religious  views  may  have  been  prior 
to  his  death,  there  is  no  doubt  but  that  he  died  a  believer  in 
an  Almighty  God. 

John  Adams,  John  Quincy  Adams,  Fillmore,  were  Unitarians; 
Jackson,  Polk,  Buchanan,  Lincoln,  Johnson,  Cleveland,  Benjamin 
Harrison,  were  Presbyterians,  although  Lincoln,  Johnson, 
and  Polk  were  not  communicants.  Polk  on  his  death-bed  re- 
ceived the  rite  of  baptism  from  a  Methodist  clergyman.  Grant 
and  Hayes  were  Methodists  ;  Van  Buren  attended  the  Dutch 
Reformed  Church.  Pierce  was  a  Trinitarian  Congre- 
gationalist,  and  Garfield  a  member  of  the  Church  of  Dis 
ciples. 

Expenses  of  the  White  House.  —  Besides  the  salary  of 
$50,000,  the  government  allows  the  President  a  fund,  usually 
about  $75,000,  for  the  expenses  of  the  White  House,  the  main- 
tenance of  the  grounds,  repairs,  etc.,  and  for  the  hiring  of  assist- 
ants, clerical  and  otherwise.  The  latter  are :  Private  Secretary, 
$3,250 ;  Assistant  Private  Secretary,  $2,250 ;  Stenographer, 

$1,800;  Five  Messengers,  $1,200  each;  Steward,  $ ;  Two 

Doorkeepers,  $1,200  each ;  Two  Ushers,  $1,200,  $1,400 ;  Night 
Usher,  $1,200  ;  Watchman,  $900  ;  and  a  few  other  minor  clerks 
and  telegraph  operators.  The  rest  of  the  appropriation  goes  for 
care  and  furnishing  of  the  White  House,  fuel,  the  greenhouse, 
the  stable,  gas,  etc.  Mrs.  Harrison  secured  an  additional  appro- 
priation from  tlie  Fifty- First  Congress  for  improving  the  drainage 
of  the  Executive  Mansion,  the  building  of  additions  to  the  house, 
etc. 

Presidential  Term.  —  The  length  of  time  the  President 
should  serve  was  not  decided  upon  without  a  good  deal  of  discus- 
sion. Some  Congressmen  favored  seven  years,  others  twelve, 
fifteen,  "during  good  behavior,"  while  Rufus  King  advocated 
"  twenty  years,  the  medium  life  of  princes."  Finally,  a  "  grand 
committee,"  consisting  of  one  member  from  each  State,  reported 
in  favor  of  limiting  the  term  to  four  years. 

Title  of  the  President.  —  The  title  "President  of  the 
United  States  "  originated  in  deference  to  Washington's  desire 
not  to  arouse  public  criticism  by  conferring  upon  the  Executive 
any  title  which  might  savor  of  monarchy.  A  committee  of  Con- 

S'ess  had  reported  in  favor  of  addressing  the  President  as  "  His 
ighncss,  the  President  of  the  United   States  of  America,  and 


PUBLIC  LANDS  AND  LAND  GRANTS.  323 

Protector  of  their  Liberty."     The  inauguration  was  delayed  in 
order  that  this  important  question  might  be  settled.     Finally,  a 
committee  of  Congress  reported  that  "  it  is  not  proper  to  annex 
any  style  or  title  other  than  expressed  in  the  Constitution." 
Press,  History  and  Statistics  of  the.     (See  Newspapers.) 
Primary  Elections.     (See  How  the  President  Is  Elected.) 
Progressive  Labor  Party.    (See  Political  Parties.) 
Prohibition  National  Committee.     (See  National  Com- 
mittee.) 

Public  Lands  and  Land  Grants.  —  Grants  of  government 
land  are  made  to  all  States  on  their  admission,  to  the  extent  of 
five  per  cent,  of  the  entire  area  within  the  States.  The  govern- 
ment has  made  it  a  rule  to  make  extensive  grants  to  railroad  cor- 
porations as  an  inducement  to  build.  The  first  grant  of  land  for 
a  railroad  was  to  the  State  of  Illinois,  in  1850,  of  2,500,000  acres, 
which  was  used  for  the  construction  of  the  Illinois  Central  Rail- 
road. 

To  encourage  the  building  of  the  Trans -Continental  Rail- 
roads, upwards  of  25,000,000  acres  were  granted.  Later,  the 
Northern  Pacific  and  the  Atlantic  Pacific  Railroads  received  over 
40,000,000  acres  each.  In  recent  years,  public  sentiment  has  dis- 
approved of  these  wholesale  gifts  of  land  to  private  individuals, 
and  by  Act  of  Congress,  a  considerable  portion  of  the  grants  have 
been  recovered,  chiefly  for  failure  to  live  up  to  the  terms  of  the 
grants.  In  1891,  the  government  owned  994,000,000  acres  of 
public  lands  which  had  at  that  time  been  surveyed.  Besides  this 
lai-ge  area,  there  were  upwards  of  800,000,000  acres  unsurveyed, 
but  not  suitable  for  domestic  life. 

The  public  lands,  undisposed  of  and  Open  to  Settlement, 
are  divided  into  two  classes,  one  class  being  held  at  $1.25  per 
acre  as  the  minimum  price,  the  other  at  $2.50  per  acre ;  being  the 
alternate  sections  reserved  by  the  United  States  in  land  grants  to 
railroads,  etc.  Such  tracts  are  sold  on  application  to  the  regis- 
ters and  receivers  of  the  district  land  offices  upon  conditions  of 
actual  residence  and  improvement  under  the  pre-emption  laws. 
Widows,  heads  of  families,  or  single  persons  over  twenty-one 
years  of  age,  if  citizens  of  the  United  States,  or  aliens  who  have 
declared  their  intention  to  become  citizens,  have  the  Right  of 
Pre-emption  to  the  maximum  quantity  of  160  acres  each  on 
becoming  settlers  and  complying  with  the  regulations.  Under 
the  Homestead  laws  a  citizen,  or  an  alien  having  declared  his 
intention  to  become  a  citizen,  has  the  right  to  160  acres  of  either 
the  $1.25  or  $2.50  class  after  actual  residence  and  cultivation  for 
five  years.  Under  the  Timber  Culture  law  a  citizen,  or  one 


324  PUBLIC   LANDS    AND    LAND    OWNERS. 

who  has  declared  his  intention  to  become  such,  if  the  head  of  a 
family,  or  a  single  person  over  twenty-one  years,  may  acquire 
title  to  160  acres  on  cultivating  ten  acres  of  trees  thereon  for 
eight  years.  By  the'  act  of  August  30,  1890,  no  person  can 
acquire  under  all  the  land  laws  an  aggregate  area  of  more  than 
320  acres  of  the  public  lands.  In  the  year  ending  June  30, 
1891,  the  number  of  acres  entered  under  the  Homestead  Act, 
and  the  Timber  Act,  was  5,040,393  (homestead),  and  969,006 
(timber). 

Alien  Land  Owners. —  The  holdings  of  lands  in  the 
United  States  by  foreign  corporations,  companies,  and  individuals 
aggregate  upwards  of  25,000,000  acres.  Most  of  these  lands  are 
west  of  the  Mississippi,  and  nearly  all  of  the  foreign  owners  are 
Englishmen,  who  use  the  land  for  cattle-raising  purposes.  The 
more  prominent  of  these  alien  land-owners,  and  the  amount  of 
their  holdings,  in  acres,  are :  An  English  syndicate,  No.  3,  in 
Texas,  3,000,000  ;  the  Holland  Land  Co.,  New  Mexico,  4,500,- 
000 ;  Sir  Edw.  Reid  and  a  syndicate,  Florida,  2,000,000 ;  Eng- 
lish Syndicate  in  Mississippi,  1,800,000;  Marquis  of  Tweedale, 
1,750,000  ;  Phillips,  Marshall  &  Co.,  London,  1,300,000  ;  German- 
American  syndicate,  London,  750,000  ;  Bryan  H.  Evans,  of  Lon- 
don, 700,000;  Duke  of  Sutherland,  425,000;  British  Land 
Company  in  Kansas,  320,000 ;  Wm.  Wharley,  M.  P.,  Peterboro, 
Eng.,  310,000;  Missouri  Land  Co.,  Edinburgh,  Scotland,  300,000  ; 
Robert  Tennent,  of  London,  230,000  ;  Dundee  Land  Co.,  Scot- 
land, 247,000 ;  Lord  Dunmore,  120,000 ;  Benjamin  Neugas, 
Liverpool,  100,000 ;  Lord  Houghton,  in  Florida,  60,000 ;  Lord 
Dunraven,  in  Colorado,  60,000;  English  Land  Company,  in 
Florida,  50,000 ;  English  Land  Company,  in  Arkansas,  50,000  ; 
Albert  Peel,  M.  P.,  Leicestershire,  Eng.,  10,000;  Sir  J.  L.  Kay, 
Yorkshire,  Eng.,  5,000 ;  Alexander  Grant,  of  London,  in  Kansas, 
35,000;  English  syndicate,  Wisconsin,  110,000;  M.  Ellerhauser, 
of  Halifax,  in  W.  Va.,  600,000 ;  a  Scotch  syndicate  in  Florida, 
500,000;  A.  Boysen,  Danish  consul  in  Milwaukee,  50,000  ;  Mis- 
souri Land  Company,  of  Edinburgh,  165,000. 

To  these  Syndicate  Holdings  should  be  added  the  follow- 
ing :  The  Arkansas  Valley  Company  in  Colorado,  a  foreign  cor- 
poi'ation,  whose  inclosures  embrace  upward  of  1,000,000  acres  ; 
the  Prairie  Cattle  Company  (Scotch),  in  Colorado,  upwards  of 
1,000,000 ;  H.  H.  Metcalf,  River  Bend,  Colorado,  200,000  ;  John 
W.  Powers,  Colorado,  200,000 ;  McDaniel  &  Davis,  Colorado, 
75,000 ;  Routchler  &  Lamb,  Colorado,  40,000 ;  J.  W.  Frank, 
Colorado,  40,000  ;  Garnett  &  Langford,  Colorado,  30,000 ;  E.  C. 
Tane,  Colorado,  50,000;  Leivesy  Brothers,  Colorado,  150,000; 
Vrooman  &  McFife,  Colorado,  50,000  ;  Beatty  Brothers,  Colo- 


EAILBOADS  AND  BRIDGES.  325 

rado,  40,000  ;  Chick,  Brown  &  Co.,  Colorado,  30,000;  Reynolds 
Cattle  Company,  Colorado,  50,000  ;  several  other  holdings  in 
Colorado,  embracing  from  10,000  to  30,000 ;  Coe  &  Carter, 
Nebraska,  fifty  miles  of  fence ;  J.  W.  Wilson,  Nebraska,  forty 
miles  ;  J.  W.  Boster,  twenty  miles;  William  Humphrey, 
Nevada,  thirty  miles ;  Nelson  &  Son,  Nevada,  twenty-two 
miles ;  Kennebec  Ranch,  Nebraska,  from  20,000  to  50,000  acres. 

Public  Schools.     (See  Education.) 

Pull.     (See  Slang  of  Politics.) 

Purse.     (See  Presidents  of  the  United  States.) 

Put  None  but  Americans  on  Guard  To-night.  (See  Say- 
ings of  Famous  Americans.) 

Quids.     (See  Political  .Parties.) 

Rag  Baby. —  A  derisive  name  for  the  Greenback  idea.  Rag 
currency  was  paper  money. 

Railroading. — (See  Slang  of  Politics.) 

Railroad  Mileage.      (See  Railroads  and  Bridges.) 

Railroads  and  Bridges. 

Early  Building.  Accidents. 

Pacific  Railroads.  Earnings. 

Speed.  Mileage. 

Railroad  Bridges.  Street  Railways. 

The  first  railroad  constructed  in  America  was  projected  by 
Gridley  Bryant,  civil  engineer,  in  1825,  and  completed  the  fol- 
lowing year,  from  the  granite  quarries  at  Quincy,  Mass.,  to  the 
Neponset  River ;  including  branches,  it  was  four  miles  long.  The 
first  cost  was  $50,000.  It  had  a  five-foot  gauge ;  the*  sleepers 
were  made  of  stone,  and  the  rails  of  wood.  Bryant  invented  the 
portable  derrick,  the  turn-table,  the  switch,  and  built  the  first 
eight-wheeled  car  ever  used.  Four  years  later,  Ross  Winans 
of  Baltimore,  experimenting  with  a  view  of  designing  a  carriage 
capable  of  rounding  the  short  curves  of  roads  then  under  con- 
struction, produced  the  eight- wheeled  carriage  which  is  still  in 
use  in  this  country  and  Europe. 

The  second  railroad  in  America  was  opened  in  May,  1827, 
from  the  Mauch  Chunk  (Pa.)  mines  to  the  Lehigh  River;  it  was 
thirteen  miles  in  length,  including  branches.  The  first  Stephen - 
son  locomotive  in  this  country  was  one  imported  by  the  Dela- 
ware and  Hudson  Canal  Company  in  1829.  The  First  Rail- 
way Company  incorporated  is  now  known  as  the  Baltimore 
&  Ohio;  the  legislature  of  Maryland,  in  March,  1827,  granted  a 
charter;  the  capital  stock  was  $500,000,  and  both  Maryland 


326 


RAILROADS    AXD    BKIDGE8. 


"and  the  city  of  Baltimore  were  authorized  to  buy  the  stock. 
It  was  intended  to  use  not  steam  but  horses  on  the  road,  relays 
of  which  were  kept  at  points  along  the  route.  The  road  was 
gradually  extended  from  its  original  terminus,  Frederick,  Md., 
across  the  Blue  Ridge  and  Alleghany  Mountains  as  far  as  Cin- 
cinnati. The  first  American  locomotive  was  builtin  Baltimore,  by 
Peter  Cooper,  of  New  York,  in  1830,  and  was  run  from  Baltimore 

to  Ellicott's 
Mills.  It 
attained  to  a 
speed  of  eigh- 
teen miles  an 
hour.  From 
this  time  the 
number  of 
railroads 
rapidly  multi- 
plied  In 
fact,  by  1837, 
the  total  mile- 
a  g  e  was 

greater  than  that  of  any  other 
country.  The  variation  in  the 
gauge  of  different  connecting 
roads  led  to  much  inconvenience, 
but  ultimately  a  uniform  gauge 
of  4  feet  8£  inches  was  adopted. 
An  incentive  of  the  utmost  im- 
portance for  the  building  of  rail- 
roads has  been  the  policy  of  the 
government  of  making  grants  of 
public  lands  to  railroad  corpo- 
rations, especially  in  the  North- 
western, Western,  and  Southern 
States. 

Pacific  Railroads — The  project  of  connecting  the  Atlantic 
and  Pacific  Oceans  by  rail  was  discussed  from  all  points  of  view 
between  1846  to  1849.  In  the  latter  year,  Senator  Thomas  H. 
Benton,  of  Missouri,  introduced  a  bill  for  the  building  of  such  a 
road,  but  it  was  not  until  1862  and  1864,  surveys  meanwhile 
having  been  completed,  that  the  plan  took  definite  shape.  Acts 
of  Congress  then  provided  for  Subsidies  in  six  per  cent,  bonds, 
at  the  rate  of  $16,000  a  mile,  $48,000  a  mile,  $32,000  a  mile,  and 
16,000  a  mile,  according  to  the  difficulty  of  building.  Land 
Grants,  aggregating  25,000,000  acres,  were  also  made  to  the  com- 


RAILROADS  AND  BRIDGES.  327 

pany.  The  government  took  a  first  lien  on  the  road,  but  released 
it  when  it  appeared  that  the  subsidy  was  not  sufficient  to  pay  the 
expense  of  construction.  The  company,  therefore,  issued  their 
own  bonds,  secured  by  mortgage  on  the  property.  Work  was 
begun  in  1863,  from  the  Missouri  River,  and  from  California;  in 
the  former  case  by  the  Union  Pacific  Company,  in  the  latter  by 
the  Central  Pacific  Company.  On  May  12,  1869,  the  road  was 
Opened  for  Business,  and  its  construction  in  so  short  a  time 
was  a  signal  triumph  of  engineering  skill  and  American  pluck. 
The  cost  of  the  Union  Pacific  Road  was  8112,259,360  or  $108,- 
778  a  mile;  the  liabilities  at  the  time  of  completion  were  $113,110 
a  mile.  The  number  of  miles  of  track  laid  was  1,029  ;  the  Central 
Pacific  laid  from  California  881  miles.  The  cost  of  the  latter, 
including  branches,  was  $114,358  a  mile.  The  roads  and  sub- 
divisions of  roads  which  were  built  by  government  money  under 
the  plan  outlined  above  were  the  Central  Pacific,  Kansas  Pacific, 
Union  Pacific,  Central  Branch  of  Union  Pacific,  Western  Pacific, 
and  Sioux  City,  and  Pacific. 

The  total  Mileage  of  Railroads  operated  in  1889  was  166,- 
817  ;  side  tracks  and  sidings,  42,242.  There  were  151,722  miles 
of  steel  rails,  51,063  miles  of  iron  rails,  31,062  engines;  26,511 
passenger  cars,  1,137,627  freight  cars.  The  Passengers  car- 
ried numbered  492,430,865  ;  the  passenger  mileage  was  11,905,- 
726,015 ;  tons  of  freight  moved  numbered  619,137,237  ;  the  freight 
mileage  was  68,604,012,396.  The  Earnings  from  passengers 
were  $259,640,807 ;  from  freight,  $666,530,653 ;  the  total  earn- 
ings were  $992,856,856 ;  expenses  were  $376,402,967  ;  net  earn- 
ings, $318,125,339;  surplus,  $30,526,520.  The  Capital  Stock 
of  railroads  in  1890  was  $4,640,239,578  ;  the  bonded  debt  was 
$4,828,365,771.  The  total  liabilities  were  $9,931,453,146;  total 
assets,  $10,205,493,050;  excess  of  assets,  $274,039,904.  The 
Dividends  paid  in  1890  were  $83,863,632 ;  interest,  $229,101,- 
144.  The  gross  earnings  in  1890  (Poor's  Manual  for  1890)  were 
$1,097,847,428;  net  earnings,  $343,921,318. 

The  railroad  Employees  in  all  branches  of  the  service  in 
1890  numbered  749,301.  The  Greatest  Mileage  in  any  State 
is  that  of  Illinois,  10,213  miles;  Kansas  is  second  with  8,806 
miles;  Texas  third  with  8,613  miles.  The  smallest  mileage  is 
that  of  Rhode  Island,  212  miles.  The  new  tracks  laid  in  1891 
were  4,168  miles.  (For  railroad  mileage  of  States  and  Terri- 
tories see  each  State  and  Territory.) 

Speed.  —  A  maintained  speed  of  forty  miles  an  hour  is  no 
longer  uncommon  011  any  one  of  half  a  dozen  of  the  great  railroad 
systems.  For  several  years  the  Pennsylvania  Railroad  has  run 
express  trains  between  New  York  &  Washington,  225.3  miles,  in 


828 


BAILROADS    AND    BRIDGES. 


five  hours,  an  average  of  48.6  miles  an  hour.  This  road  in  1891 
ran  a  special  between  New  York  and  Washington  in  4  hours,  11 
minutes,  an  average  exclusive  of  the  stops  of  56f  miles  an  hour. 
The  year  before  a  train  carrying  a  theatrical  troupe  made  the 
run  in  4  hours,  18  minutes,  and  back  again  in  the  same  time. 

The  Fastest  Run  across  the  Continent  was  that  of  the  Jar- 
rett  and  Palmer  special  theatrical  train,  which  in  June,  1886, 
ran  from  Jersey  City  to  Oakland,  California,  in  3  days,  11  hours, 
30  minutes  and  16  seconds.  The  distance  was  3,301  miles; 
average  91.23  miles  an  hour.  On  November  14,  1889,  a  new 
regular  fast  mail  train  left  the  Grand  Central  Depot  in  New  York 
at  9  P.  M.,  and  reached  San  Francisco  in  4  days,  12  hours,  45 
minutes.  In  October,  1891,  John  W.  Mackay  and  Miss  Virginia 
Fair  crossed  the  continent  in  a  special  car  attached  to  regular  trains 
in  4  days,  12  hours,  28  minutes.  On  October  29,  1891,  James  L. 
Flood  performed  the  same  journey  in  4  days,  12  hours,  15  minutes. 


A     MODERN    LOCOMOTIVE. 

The  New  York  Central  road  recently  inaugurated  a  fast  service 
between  New  York  and  Buffalo,  440  miles,  its  Empire  State 
Express  making  the  run  in  425  minutes  and  14  seconds ;  average 
61.56  miles  an  hour.  In  England,  the  fastest  train  is  the  Flying 
Scotchman,  London  to  Edinburgh,  400  miles,  which  it  makes 
in  7  hours,  52  seconds,  an  average  speed  of  50.9  miles  an  hour. 

So  high  a  rate  of  speed  has  been  made  practically  safe  by  the 
adoption  of  several  ingenious  appliances,  as  well  as  by  the  main- 
tenance of  strict  discipline  by  the  employees.  The  automatic  air- 
brake, the  interlocking  system  of  signals  and  switches,  and  the 
"block"  system  of  signals,  all  play  important  parts  in  swift  rail- 
way travelling.  The  telegraph,  which  runs  into  the  train-de- 
spatcher's  office  at  the  central  station,  is  also  an  invaluable  assistant. 

Railroad  Accidents. —  Railroad  accidents  are    due  to   a 


RAILROADS  AND  BRIDGES.  329 

variety  of  causes,  the  most  frequent  being  obstructions  (unfore- 
seen )  ;  defects  of  the  roads,  such  as  a  broken  frog,  or  caving  of 
the  embankment ;  defects  of  equipment ;  negligence  on  the  part 
of  the  employees,  although  this  is  a  less  frequent  cause  of  accident 
than  either  of  the  others,  in  spite  of  popular  opinion  to  the  con- 
trary. The  fact  that  the  number  of  accidents  and  the  number  of 
casualties  are  increasing  has  resulted  in  an  effort  to  determine 
the  Causes,  and  some  interesting  statistics  have  been  obtained. 
From  1880  to  1890  inclusive,  the  number  of  accidents  was  16,280, 
an  average  of  1,480  each  year,  or  four  a  day.  The  number  of 
people  killed  in  the  same  time  was  5,241  ;  the  injured  numbered 
19,779.  These  figures  are  exclusive  of  deaths  due  to  walking  on 
the  tracks,  or  while  crossing  them.  The  number  of  accidents  in 
1890  was  larger  than  that  in  any  year  since  the  record  has  been 
kept;  the  total  was  2,146;  killed,  806;  injured,  2,812.  Acci- 
dents due  to  defects  in  the  road  numbered  in  1890,  167  ;  to 
defects  of  equipment,  158;  to  obstructions,  194;  to  negligence 
of  employees,  108  ;  unaccounted  for,  377.  Of  the  'collisions, 
495  were  rear  collisions  ;  323  due  to  "  butting  "  ;  222  in  crossing 
other  roads  and  to  miscellaneous  causes. 

Street  Railways,  Statistics  of.  —  The  census  of  1890 
showed  that  in  December,  1889,  476  cities  and  towns  possessed 
street  transit  facilities  in  one  form  or  another.  The  latest  figures 
show  that  Philadelphia  has  510  miles  of  single  track;  Chicago, 
452  ;  New  York,  289  ;  Brooklyn,  285  ;  Boston,  283  ;  St.  Louis, 
275  ;  Baltimore,  207  ;  San  Francisco,  205;  Cleveland,  192;  Cin- 
cinnati, 180;  Pittsburg,  168;  Kansas  City,  141 ;  New  Orleans, 
139;  Louisville,  132;  Buffalo,  110;  Minneapolis,  101;  Los 
Angeles,  99  ;  Detroit,  94  ;  Birmingham,  Ala.,  92 ;  St.  Paul,  90  ; 
Washington,  85.  New  York  carried  in  1890, 405,000,000  passen- 
gers, Chicago  206,000,000,  and  Boston  (1891)  119,000,000.  The 
Total  Mileage  for  the  country  last  reported  was  11,030  ;  animal 
power,  5,443  ;  electricity,  3,009  ;  motors,  1,918  ;  cable,  660.  The 
horses  employed  number  88,114;  mules,  12,002;  cars,  36,517; 
motors,  200.  The  rapid  adoption  of  Electricity  for  rapid 
transit  has  diminished  the  number  of  horses  employed,  which 
three  years  ago  was  over  110,000.  It  is  estimated  that  by  the 
end  of  1892  there  will  be  in  operation  upwards  of  4,000  miles  of 
electric  railways.  The  First  Street  Railway  was  operated 
in  November,  1832,  between  the  City  Hall  aad  Fourteenth  Street. 
It  was  known  and  has  continued  to  be  known  as  the  Fourth  Ave- 
nue line. 

Bridges,  Railroad. —  The  bridges  of  the  United  States  are 
mechanically  the  most  perfect  of  any  in  the  world.  The  more 
remarkable  of  them  are  here  briefly  described :  —  Over  the  Sus- 


330 


RAILROADS    AND    BRIDGES. 


quehanna  River  at  Havre  de  Grace,  Md.,  is  a  wooden  bridge 
23,271  feet  long,  which  has  twelve  spans,  each  resting  on  a  granite 
pier.  It  was  built  at  a  time  when  wooden  bridges  were  the  rule. 
The  Suspension  Bridge  at  Niagara  was  built  by  Koebling. 
Its  span  is  821  feet,  the  deflection,  59  feet ;  there  are  14,560 
wires  in  the  cables,  capable  of  sustaining  12,000  tons.  The 
railway  tracks  are  245  feet  above  the  river.  It  was  completed 
in  1855,  and  cost  $400,000.  The  Suspension  Bridge  over 
the  Ohio  at  Cincinnati,  also,  was  built  by  Roebling.  It  is  2,220 
feet  over  all,  has  a  span  of  1,057  feet,  and  is  103  feet  above  low 

water.  The  two 
cables  which 
support  it  are 
124;  inches  in 
d  iameter. 
Another  won- 
derful achieve- 
ment of  Roeb- 
1  i  n g  is  the 
Brooklyn 
Bridge,  con- 
necting New 
York  and 
Brooklyn.  I  t 
rests  on  two 
granite  anchor- 
ages. The  span 
between  the  an- 
chorages is  1  ,- 
595  feet ;  the 
length  over  all 
is  3,475  feet ; 
the  height  above 
the  river  is  135 

feet;  it  is  built  of  iron,  the  width  of  the  frame  being  85  feet, 
which  is  suspended  from  four  cables,  each  16  inches  in  diameter, 
composed  of  galvanized  steel  wire,  with  a  strength  of  160,000 
pounds  per  square  inch  of  section.  The  height  of  the  stone  piers 
is  272  feet  above  high  tide.  The  strength  of  the  main  span  is 
5,000  tons.  The  bridge  cost  $15,000,000.  The  First  Railway 
Suspension  Bridge  was  built  in  1852  over  the  Kentucky 
River  at  Frankfort ;  the  span  was  600  feet.  It  was  replaced  by 
a  truss  bridge.  An  Iron  Tubular  Bridge  over  the  St.  Law- 
rence at  Montreal,  on  the  Grand  Trunk  Railroad,  is  unique  of 
its  kind.  The  length  of  the  tube  is  6,600  feet,  and  is  approached 


A.    VESTIBULE    CAB. 


RAILROADS    AXD    BRIDGES. 


331 


by  embankments,  the  Montreal  end  being  1,200  feet,  the  south- 
ern 800  feet,  which,  with  the  abutments,  make  a  total  length  of 
9,084  feet.  The  tubes  were  built  in  place,  on  false  works, 
erected  in  the  rapids.  In  the  winter  the  base  of  these  works 
rested  in  the  ice  of  the  river.  The  Quincy,  111.,  Bridge, 
over  the  Mississippi,  is  at  the  point  of  crossing  3,250  feet  long. 
There  are  17  snans,  the  piers  being  of  solid  masonry,  sunk  50 
feet  deep.  The  Omaha  Bridge,  over  the  Missouri,  is  2,800 
feet  in  length,  with  11  spans  of  250  feet  each,  resting  on  iron 
cylinders,  8  feet,  8  inches  in  diameter,  and  sunk  70  feet  below  low 
water.  At  Dubuque,  Iowa,  Hannibal,  Mo.,  at  Kansas  City,  Mo., 
and  at  St.  Joseph,  Mo.,  are  four  other  notable  bridges  spanning 
the  Mississippi.  At  Louisville,  Ky.,  over  the  Ohio  River,  is  one 
of  the  longest  iron  bridges  in  the  United  States.  It  consists  of 
27- spans,  24  over  the  river,  having  a  total  length  of  5,280  feet, 
just  one  mile.  At  its  lowest  point  it  is  90£  feet  above  low  water. 

At  Memphis,  Tenn., 
the  Mississippi  River 
is  spanned  by  the 
third  largest  canti- 
lever bridge  in  the 
world,  which  was 
completed  in  May, 
1892.  It  is  three 
quarters  of  a  mile 
long,  has  five  spans, 
the  largest  of  Avhich 
is  794  feet ;  the  bridge 
cost  $3,000,000.  3EXTKAL  DEPOT  AT  NEW  YORK- 

At  St.  Louis,  Mo.,  over  the  Mississippi,  is  a  Most  Remark- 
able Structure,  of  which  James  B.  Eads  was  the  engineer. 
There  are  three  spans,  the  centre  one  being  515  feet,  the  two 
side  ones  497  feet  each.  The  spans  are  held  by  an  interlacing  of 
iron  ribs  from  pier  to  pier.  The  roadway  is  34  feet  wide  ;  there 
are  foot- walks  on  either  side,  each  8  feet  wide.  Trains  run  be- 
neath the  roadway  through  a  passage  18  feet  high.  The  bridge 
cost  $10,000,000,  The  Poughkeepsie  Bridge  is  If  miles 
long,  and  is  supported  on  four  pyramidal  steel  towers  100  feet 
high,  which  rest  upon  timber  caissons  60  x  100  feet  and  100 
feet  high.  There  are  three  cantilevers,  with  connecting  spans. 
Trains  from  the  Pennsylvania  coal-fields  enter  New  England 
direct  over  this  bridge.  The  International  Bridge  from 
Black  Rock,  near  Buffalo,  to  Fort  Erie  in  Canada,  cost 
$1,500,000. 

A  bridge  which  crosses  the   Niagara  River,  and  used  mainly 


332  BE- APPORTIONMENT. 

for  freight  trains  is  1,967$  feet  long,  with  two  draws  of  160  feet 
each. 

The  Cantilever  Bridge  near  Niagara  Falls  is  one  of  the 
highest  achievements  of  mechanical  skill  in  the  country.  It  rests 
on  lofty  towers  of  steel,  which  stand  on  either  shore,  and  has 
double  railroad  tracks  used  by  the  heaviest  trains.  The  length 
is  910  feet;  total  weight,  3,000  tons;  cost  $222,000. 

North  of  the  St.  Louis  Bridge,  on  the  Mississippi,  is  the 
Merchants'  Bridge,  2,420  feet  long,  built  in  1889-90  at  a 
cost  of  $6,000,000.  The  Arthur  Kill  Bridge,  crossing  from 
New  Jersey  to  Staten  Island,  has  the  largest  draw  in  the  world 
(500  feet).  The  Washington  Bridge,  in  New  York  City, 
has  two  arches  of  Bessemer  steel,  each  508  feet  high,  supported 
by  granite  abutments.  The  High  Bridge,  over  the  Harlem 
River,  in  New  York,  is  built  of  granite ;  it  is  1,450  feet  long 
and  114  feet  high,  and  carries  the  Croton  Aqueduct  in  New  York 
on  14  huge  piers.  The  Rush  Street  Bridge  in  Chicago, 
built  in  1884,  at  a  cost  of  $132,000,  has  the  largest  general  traffic 
draw-bridge  in  the  world.  It  accommodates  four  teams  abreast, 
and  the  foot  passages  are  seven  feet  wide. 

Rail  Splitter.     (See  Presidents  of  the  United  States.) 

Railway  Mail  Service.     (See  Post-Office  System.) 

Rainbow  Chasers.    (See  Slang  of  Politics.) 

Re-apportionment. —  By  the  new  act  re- apportion  ing  the 
Congressional  Districts,  the  House  of  Representatives,  after 
March  3,  1893,  shall  consist  of  356  members,  as  follows  :  Ala- 
bama, 9  ;  Arkansas,  6  ;  California,  7  ;  Colorado,  2  ;  Connecticut, 
4  ;  Delaware,  1 ;  Florida,  2  ;  Georgia,  11  ;  Idaho,  1  ;  Illinois,  22  ; 
Indiana,  13  ;  Iowa,  11 ;  Kansas,  8  ;  Kentucky,  11 ;  Louisiana,  6  ; 
Maine,  4;  Maryland,  6 ;  Massachusetts,  13;  Michigan,  12; 
Minnesota,  7;  Mississippi,  7;  Missouri,  15;  Montana,  1;  Ne- 
braska, 6 ;  Nevada,  1 ;  New  Hampshire,  2  ;  New  Jersey,  8  ; 
New  York,  34  ;  North  Carolina,  9  ;  North  Dakota,  1  ;  Ohio,  21 ; 
Oregon,  2  ;  Pennsylvania,  30  ;  Rhode  Island,  2  ;  South  Carolina, 
7  j  South  Dakota,  2;  Tennessee,  10;  Texas,  13;  Vermont,  2 ; 
Virginia,  10  ;  Washington,  2  ;  West  Virginia,  4  ;  Wisconsin,  10 ; 
Wyoming,  1. 

Receipts  and  Expenditures,  Government.  (See  Finances, 
Government.) 

Reciprocity.  —  This  is  the  name  of  an  arrangement  between 
two  countries  by  which  each  grants  the  other  certain  commercial 
privileges.  It  usually  affects  the  imports  from  one  country  to  the 
other ;  under  reciprocity  one  nation  may  agree  to  reduce  or  abol- 


BECIPKOCITY. 


333 


ish  the  duties  on  a  certain  class  of  merchandise  imported  from  the 
other  country,  in  return  for  similar  concessions  affecting  its  own 
goods  in  the  other  country.  Within  the  past  five  years  reci- 
procity has  been  put  forward  as  a  means  of  expanding  our  foreign 
trade,  and  already  several  reciprocity  treaties,  favorable  to  this 
country,  have  been  negotiated.  It  is  customary  to  provide  that, 
should  either  of  the  parties  to  the  treaty  grant  more  favorable 
conditions  to  a  third  nation,  such  privileges  should  inure  also  to 
the  benefit  of  the  other  party  to  the  treaty ;  such  an  agreement  is 
called  the  "  most  favored  nation  "  clause  of  the  treaty.  - 

During  the  administration  of  President  Harrison,  Reciprocity 
Treaties  were  entered  into  between  the  United  States  and 
Brazil ;  with  Spain,  for  Cuba  and  Porto  Rico ;  with  Salvador  in 


Central  America ;  with  Great  Britain  for  Jamaica,  Barbadoes,  the 
Leeward  and  Windward  Islands  (except  Grenada  and  Trinidad), 
and  British  Guiana,  the  schedule  with  Jamaica  containing  63 
kinds  of  articles  admitted  free,  and  12  upon  reduced  duties,  that 
with  the  other  colonies  containing  58  articles  admitted  free,  and 
16  upon  reduced  duties.  A  treaty  has  also  been  entered  into 
with  Santo  Domingo,  and  treaties  with  South  American  countries 
are  in  process  of  negotiation. 

In  the  McKinley  ^Tariff  Act  of  1890,  a  reciprocity  section  was 
incorporated,  and  went  into  effect  with  the  bill  itself.  The  act 
provides  for  the  Free  Entrance  of  sugar,  coffee,  molasses,  tea, 
and  hides,  but  the  reciprocity  section  authorizes  the  President  to 
cause  these  articles  to  be  taxed,  each  to  a  specified  amount,  in 
case  it  shall  be  determined  that  the  exporting  country  imposes  a 
tariff  on  American  imports  into  it.  That  is,  if  the  exchange  is  an 
unequal  one,  the  President  can  make  the  exchange  a  fair  one. 

Reconstruction.  —  The  status  of  the  rebellious  States  towards 
the  Federal  Government  after  the  Civil  War  involved  many 


534 


RECONSTRUCTION. 


delicate  questions.  These  States  were  practically  _  conquered 
territory,  but  the  Constitution  contained  no  provision  for  the 
reception  of  a  State  which  had  left  the  Union  of  its  own  free 
will.  Their  admission  to  their  former  position  among  the  States 
would  have  given  them  virtual  control  over  the  negroes,  who 
were  now  demanding  that  their  freedom  be  secured  to  them  in 
fact  as  well  as  in  name.  There  was  great  divergence  in  the  views 
of  statesmen  and  people  alike.  Sumner's  theory  was  that  the 
rebellious  States  having  seceded,  slavery  was  thereby  abolished, 
and  Congress  should  proceed  to  protect  the  inhabitants. 

President  Johnson's  Policy  was  to  punish  individuals,  not 


THE    NIAGARA    CANTILEVER    BRIDGE.      (SEE     RAILROADS     AND     BRIDGES.) 

States ;  he  took  the  position  that  a  State  could  not  be  punished 
for  treason  by  Congress.  His  policy  was  to  reinstall  the  rebel- 
lious States  to  their  previous  full  powers.  By  proclamation  he 
declared  all  Southern  ports,  except  four,  open  to  commerce,  pro- 
claimed amnesty  and  pardon  to  all  rebels,  except  in  fourteen  in- 
stances, restored  the  writ  of  habeas  corpus  in  the  Northern 
States,  and  appointed  provisional  governors  for  the  seceded 
States,  with  the  view  of  reorganizing  them  into  permanent 
governments.  At  first  the  Republicans,  at  that  time  having  a 
majority  in  both  Houses,  supported  the  President,  but  a  bitter 


RELIGIOUS    DENOMINATIONS.  335 

strife  between  the  Chief  Executive  and  Congress  soon  began. 
Congress  passed  a  supplementary  Freedmen's  Bill  which 
aimed  at  further  protection  of  the  blacks,  but  the  President 
vetoed  it.  The  Civil  Rights  Bill  (which  see),  which  declared  the 
negroes  citizens  with  the  rights  or  citizenship,  was  vetoed  by 
the  President,  but  was  passed  over  the  veto.  The  Fourteenth 
Amendment,  also  for  the  protection  of  the  negro,  was  adopted, 
but  President  Johnson  disapproved  it.  Congress  also  passed  the 
Tenure  of  Office  Act  (which  see),  which  took  away  much  of 
the  President's  power  of  removal  from  office;  Congress  deprived 
the  President  of  command  of  the  army  by  providing  that  his 
orders  should  be  given  only  through  the  General,  and  made 
Grant  irremovable.  Johnson  vetoed  the  bill  admitting  Nebraska 
as  a  State,  but  Congress  passed  it  over  the  veto. 

Finally  the  bill  to  provide  efficient  governments  for  the  rebel- 
lious States  was  passed,  was  vetoed  by  Johnson,  and  was  passed 
over  the  veto  on  March  2,  1867.  This  bill  divided  the  States 
into  Military  Districts,  commanded  by  a  brigadier-general, 
whose  duty  was  to  protect  all  citizens  in  their  rights.  The  bill 
provided  that  the  military  governors  in  each  State  should  super- 
vise an  election  for  the  choosing  of  delegates  to  a  constitu- 
tional convention,  having  for  its  purpose  the  formation  of  a  State 
government.  When  new  legislatures  had  been  elected  in  these 
States,  and  had  ratified  the  Fourteenth  Amendment,  the  States 
would  be  re-admitted  to  the  Union.  The  military  governors 
were  appointed  and  reconstruction  proceeded.  The  Consti- 
tutions thus  adopted  abolished  slavery,  repudiated  the  debts 
incurred  during  the  Civil  War,  renounced  the  right  of  secession 
and  agreed  to  pass  no  laws  abridging  the  liberty  of  any  class  of 
citizens.  By  March  30,  1870,  all  the  rebellious  States  were 
re-admitted  except  Georgia,  which  was  re-admitted  in  July  of  the 
same  year. 

Red  Men,  Improved  Order  of.     (See  Secret  Societies.) 
Religious  Convictions  of  Presidents.     (See  Presidents  of 
the  United  States.) 

Religious  Denominations. 

Membership.  God  in  the  Constitution. 

Property.  Sunday  Schools. 

Freedom  of  religious  thought  has  ever  been  inseparable  from 
the  idea  of  the  Republic.  There  have  been  from  time  to  time 
combinations  of  men  who  have  sought  to  have  a  "  God  in  the 
Constitution"  clause  put  into  that  immortal  document.  But 
no  recognition  of  any  religious  denomination  or  creed  ever  has 


336 


RELIGIOUS    DENOMINATIONS. 


CHURCH  OF  SAU  MIGUEL  AT  SANTA   FE,  N.   M. 


been  made  by  the  Federal  Government.  (See  Indian  Schools, 
under  Education.)  The  first  amendment  to  the  Constitution  de- 
clares that  "  Congress  shall  make  no  law  respecting  an  establish- 
ment  of  religion,  or  prohibiting  the  free  exercise  thereof."  The 
only  government  act  in  which  the  word  God  is  found  is  that 
creating  the  copper  two-cent  piece  of  1864,  which  bore  the  in- 
scription, « In  God  We  Trust."  (See  Coinage.) 

In  1874  there  was  a  Religious  Movement  which  sought  to 
have  the  word  inserted  in  the  Constitution,  on  which  the  House 

Committee  of  Judiciary 
reported  adversely  on  the 
broad  ground  that  this 
question  was  carefully 
considered  by  the  fram- 
ers  of  the  instrument; 
that  it  was  rightly  de- 
cided that  the  Republic 


was  to  be  the  home  of  the 
oppressed  of  all  nations, 
whether  Christian  or 
Pagan,  and  that  in  view 
of  the  mischief  of  a  union 
of  Church  and  State  seen  in  other  nations,  it  was  thought  inex- 
pedient to  put  anything  into  the  Constitution  which  might  be 
construed  as  the  recognition  or  support  of  any  religion,  creed,  or 
doctrine.  The  Fathers  of  the  Constitution  seem  to  have  recognized 
and  to  have  taken  counsel  of  the  fact  that  it  was  the  desire  to 
find  a  place  in  which  they  might  have  "  freedom  to  worship  God  " 
as  they  saw  fit  that  drove  the  Puritans  out  of  England. 

From  that  day  to  this,  the  Spirit  of  Toleration  has  pre- 
vailed, a  fact  which  unquestionably  explains  the  variety  of  reli- 
gious beliefs  and  creeds  enumerated  by  the  Census  Bureau.  By 
the  Bureau's  report  (incomplete),  there  were  in  1890  over  100 
religious  denominations  in  the  United  States,  having  upwards  of 
22,000,000  communicants,  owning  property  valued  at  $250,000,- 
000,  and  45,595  churches. 

The  Roman  Catholic  Church  was  first  in  the  number  of 
communicants,  6,250,045 ;  the  value  of  its  property  was  &118,- 
381,516,  although  it  had  but  10,221  churches.  The'  Methodist 
(not  reported  by  the  Census)  had  54,711  churches,  and  4,980,- 
240  communicants,  (according  to  the  Methodist  Year  Book), 
the  Baptists  48,371  churches,  and  4,292,291  communicants 
(Baptist  Year  Book  ) ;  the  Episcopalians  5,281  churches,  and 
478,531  communicants  (Episcopal  Year  Book) ;  Congregation- 
alists,  4,689  churches,  and  491,985  communicants  (Congrega- 


RELIGIOUS    DENOMINATIONS.  337 

tional  Year  Book)  ;  Presbyterians  (Year  Book)  had  15,619 
churches,  and  1,229,012  communicants.  The  Lutherans  by 
the  census  had  8,427  churches,  valued  at  $34,2 18,234,  and 
1,199,514  communicants.  These  were  the  leading  denominations. 

The  Miscellaneous  church  bodies  included  -one  Greek 
church,  four  Schwenkfeldian,  six  American,  324  Spiritualist,  40 
Theosophical  Societies  (695  members  and  $600  in  church  prop- 
erty), fourteen  Russian  Orthodox,  550  Mennonite,  thirty-one 
Communistic,  of  whom  fifteen  were  Shaker,  and  four  Ethical 
societies.  The  numerical  strength  of  the  English-speaking  reli- 
gious denominations  is  estimated  (an  English  estimate)  as  follows  : 

Episcopalians,  23,000,000 ;  Methodists,  of  all  descriptions 
16,960,000;  Roman  Catholics,  15,200,000;  Presbyterians  of  all 
descriptions,  11,100,000;  Baptists  of  all  descriptions,  8,600,000  ; 
Congregation alists,  5,500,000  ^  Free  Thinkers,  3,500,000  ;  Luth- 
erans, etc.,  1,750,000  ;  Unitarians,  1,250,000  ;  Minor  Religious 
Sects,  4,000,000. 

Sunday  Schools. —  According  to  the  latest  estimates,  the 
number  of  scholars  attending  Sunday  schools  in  the  United 
States  was  in  1890,  8,649,131 ;  the  number  of  teachers  and  officers 
was  1,151,340.  New  York  was  first  with  979,415  scholars; 
Pennsylvania  second,  with  964,599 ;  Ohio  third,  with  620,107 ; 
Illinois  fourth,  with  582,756  ;  Indiana  fifth,  with  374,185  ;  Iowa, 
sixth,  with  319,128;  Georgia  seventh,  with  301,612;  Virginia 
eighth,  with  283,336  ;  Michigan  ninth,  with  277,200  ;  Tennessee 
tenth,  with  274,560.  The  Number  of  Sunday  Schools 
reported  is  108,939 ;  the  total  number  of  teachers  and  scholars, 
9,800,582.  These  statistics  of  Sunday  schools  do  not  include  the 
schools  of  Hebrews,  Roman  Catholics,  and  non-Evangelical 
Christian  churches.  The  number  of  scholars  in  Roman  Catholic 
Sunday  schools  in  the  United  States  is  estimated  by  clerics  at 
700,000.  The  number  of  scholars  in  the  Sunday  schools  of  the 
leading  nations  of  Europe  are  :  England  and  Wales,  6,350,266  ; 
Scotland,  711,188;  Ireland,  338,231;  Austria,  4,831;  Belgium, 
2,542 ;  Denmark,  37,000 ;  Finland,  8,800 ;  France,  53,110  ; 
Germany,  431,221  ;  Holland,  157,676  ;  Italy,  13,410  ;  Norway, 
27,190.  (See  Y.  M.  C.  A.) 

Republican  National  Committee.  (See  National  Committee.) 

Republican  Party.     (See  Political  Parties.) 

Revenue  Flag.     (See  Flags  of  the  Nation.) 

Revenue  Marine.     (See  Tariffs  of  the  United  States.) 

Rider.     (See  Slang  of  Politics.) 

Rise  Up  William  Allen.  (See  Nicknames  of  Famous 
Americans.) 


338  ERODE    ISLAND. 

Rhode  Island. —  Rhode  Island  was  one  of  the  thirteen 
original  States,  and  in  area  is  the  smallest  in  the  Union.  Jt  was 

settled  in  1636,  at  Providence,  by 
Roger  Williams,  who  had  been  ban- 
ished from  Salem  on  account  of  his 
religious  convictions.  The  State  was 
originally  occupied  by  the  Narragan- 
sett  Indians,  a  few  of  whom,  now  half- 
breeds,  remain  on  the  Indian  lands 
which  the  State  has  preserved  in 
Charlestown  for  them,  and  where  their 
ancestors  lie  buried.  The  State  has 
been  more  or  less  prominent  in  the 
history  of  the  country,  and  in  both  the 

GREAT  SEAL  OF  RHODE  ISLAND.    Revolutionary  and  the  Civil  War  she 

furnished   large  forces  of  men  to  the 

Union.  Out  of  a  population  of  one  hundred  and  seventy-five 
thousand,  over  twenty-three  thousand  men  went  to  serve  their 
flag  in  the  Rebellion. 

Narragansett  Bay,  which  runs  from  the  sea  thirty  miles  in- 
land, affords  extensive  harbors  for  shipping,  and  is  famous  for  its 
summer  resorts.  The  Narragansett  Bay  fisheries  are  valuable  for 
their  oysters,  lobsters,  clams,  and  various  sea-fish,  and  employ 
upwards  of  1,200  vessels  and  $600,000  in  capital.  The  agri- 
culture of  the  State  produces  annually  $8,000,000,  the  farm-lands 
and  buildings  being  valued  at  upwards  of  $30,000,000. 

The  Manufactures  are  the  chief  source  of  wealth.  The 
annual  product  aggregates  over  $100,000,000,  the  capital  in- 
vested being  $75,000,000.  There  are  over  twenty-six  plants, 
employing  upwards  of  seventy  thousand  persons,  of  whom  a  large 
proportion  are  women.  In  cotton,  woollen,  worsted,  and  other 
textiles,  Rhode  Island  leads  the  Union. 

The  population  of  Rhode  Island  in  1880  was  276,531  ;  in  1890 
it  was  345,506 ;  the  real  property  was  valued  at  $240,000,000, 
and  the  personal  property  at  $85,000,000.  There  were  212  miles 
of  railroads  and  66  newspapers.  The  national  institutions  are  a 
Torpedo  School  on  Goat  Island,  where  experiments  in  torpedoes 
and  other  projectiles  are  made,  and  where  officers  of  the  navy 
are  instructed  in  their  use.  Guarding  Newport  Harbor  is  Fort 
Adams,  one  of  the  important  fortresses  of  the  United  States. 
Owing  to  the  danger  to  ships  on  this  coast,  many  lighthouses  are 
located  in  the  vicinity.  There  is  a  training  school  on  board  the 
United  States  vessel  for  naval  apprentices,  where  several  hundred 
American  youths  are  taught  the  principles  of  seamanship. 

Providence,  the  chief  city,  which  had  a  population  in   1890 


SACKVILLE    IXCIDENT.  339 

of  132,146,  is  situated  at  the  head  of  Narragansett  Bay,  and  is  a 
prosperous  manufacturing,  financial,  railroad,  and  steamboat  cen- 
tre. Its  cotton  mills,  woollen  mills,  worsted  mills,  jewelry,  and 
silverware  factories  are  among  the  most  important  in  the  country. 
It  is  the  site  of  Brown  University,  and  of  several  fine  public 
buildings,  including  the  Public  Library,  the  Athenaeum,  and  the 
Rhode  Island  Historical  Society. 

The  second  city  in  population  is  Pawtucket,  also  a  busy  manu- 
facturing centre.     Woonsocket  has  great   cotton-manufacturing 
interests,  and  a  population  of  20,830.     Newport  is  an  old  town 
which  preserves  its  colonial  atmosphere  to  this  day  ;  it  is  famous 
as  a  watering  place  for  the  fashionable  people  of  the  great  cities ; 
the  population  in   1890   was  19,455.     The  Governor  of  Rhode 
Island  is  D.  Russell  Brown   (Republican),  whose  term  expires 
May  25,  1893.     The  State  is  Republican. 
Royal  Arcanum.     (See  Secret  Societies.) 
Rotation  ill  Office.     (See  Civil  Service  Reform.) 

Rum,  Romanism,  and  Rebellion.  (See  Sayings  of  Famous 
Americans.) 

Rye,  Production  of.     (See  Agriculture.) 

Sackville  Incident. —  In  the  heat  of  the  Presidential  canvass 
of  1888,  there  found  its  way  to  the  public  view  a  letter  written 
by  Lord  Sackville- West,  Minister  from  the  Court  of  St.  James  to 
the  United  States,  to  a  person  by  the  name  of  Murcheson,  resident 
in  Lower  California.  In  this  letter,  written  in  reply  to  one  to 
him  from  Murcheson,  a  professed  native-  Englishman,  but  now 
an  American  citizen,  in  which  Murcheson  asked  the  minister  to 
advise  him  whom  to  vote  for,  Lord  Sackville  made  use  of  lan- 
guage which  was  distasteful  to  the  Cleveland  administration. 
The  writing  of  such  a  letter  was  a  diplomatic  blunder,  and  at 
once  made  the  minister,  in  the  eyes  of  this  government,  Non 
Persona  Grata.  President  Cleveland  accordingly  demanded 
his  passports,  and  Sackville  left  the  country  in  disgrace.  It  is  a 
principle  of  the  comity  of  nations  that  no  minister  to  a  foreign 
court  shall  meddle  with  the  politics  of  that  country ;  to  do  so 
renders  him  obnoxious.  There  was  for  some  time  great  public 
curiosity  to  know  more  about  Murcheson.  It  appeared  on 
inquiry  that  no  person  of  that  name  was  known  in  the  town 
where  the  letter  to  Lord  Sackville  was  mailed,  and  by  some  it 
was  believed  that  the  Murcheson  letter  was  a  trick  of  the  Repub- 
licans, conceived  in  the  possibility  of  discrediting  the  Cleveland 
administration. 

Sage  of  Monticello,  The.  (See  Presidents  of  the  United 
States.) 


340  SAYINGS   OF   FAMOUS   AMERICANS. 

Salary  Grab. —  This  was  the  name  given  to  a  bill  which  was 
hurried  through  the  Forty-Second  Congress,  on  the  last  day  of 
its  session,  March  3,  1873.  It  passed  the  House  and  Senate  and 
received  President  Grant's  signature,  all  in  the  same  day.  The 
bill  raised  the  salary  of  the  President  from  $25,000  to  $50,000, 
and  the  salaries  of  Congressmen  to  $5,000.  The  fact  that  the 
provisions  of  the  bill  applied  to  the  salaries  of  the  members  for 
the  current  session  aroused  vigorous  criticism. 

Salt  River.     (See  Slang  of  Politics.) 

Savior  of  His   Country.     (See   Presidents  of  the   United 

States.) 

Sayings  of  Famous  Americans. — The  more  notable  of  the 
sayings  of  American  statesmen  are  included  in  the  following 
category :  — 

A  Covenant  With  Death,  and  an  Agreement  With 
Hell. —  This  has  always  been  regarded  as  having  been  said  by 
the  Garrisonians  of  the  Constitution,  which  the  more  radical  of 
them  declared  permitted  slavery.  The  phrase  is  said  to  have 
originated  with  William  Lloyd  Garrison  himself,  although  there 
is  a  good  deal  of  doubt  upon  the  point.  (See  Abolition  and 
Abolitionists.) 

Administration  Should  be  Conducted  behind  Glass 
Doors. —  This  utterance  originated  with  President  Cleveland  in 
defining' his  views  regarding  the  publicity  that  should  surround 
the  acts  of  public  servants. 

A  Pedestal  for  This  Colossal  Heresy. — The  Calhoun 
Nullifiers  in  1832  sought  to  show  that  nullification  would  have 
been  justified  by  Jefferson  were  he  alive.  James  Madison  made 
vigorous  protest  against  the  use  of  Jefferson's  name  "  as  a  ped- 
estal for  this  colossal  heresy." 

All  Men  Are  Created  Equal.  —  The  second  paragraph  of 
the  Declaration  of  Independence  begins :  "  We  hold  these  truths 
to  be  self-evident,  that  all  men  are  created  equal,"  etc. 

All  Quiet  Along  the  Potomac. —  When  General  McClel- 
lan  took  command  of  the  Army  of  the  Potomac  in  1861,  a  vig- 
orous campaign  was  expected.  The  country  waited  anxiously 
for  a  forward  movement,  but  the  cry  came  inevitably  back, 
"All  quiet  along  the  Potomac."  The  phrase  "masterly  inac- 
tivity" was  coined  at  this  time,  and  referred  to  McClellan's 
policy. 

All  We  Ask  Is  To  Be  Let  Alone.  —This  phrase  was  in 
the  message  of  Jefferson  Davis  to  the  Confederate  Congress  in 
1861.  It  had  reference  to  the  attitude  of  the  North  toward  the 
South. 


SAYINGS    OF   FAMOUS    AMERICANS. 


341 


TRINITY     CHURCH,     NEW    YORK. 


342  SAYINGS    OF    FAMOUS    AMERICANS. 

Americans,  The,  Must  Light  the  Lamps  of  Industry 
and  Economy.  —  This  sentiment  is  commonly  attributed  to 
Benjamin  Franklin,  as  having  been  written  in  a  letter  from  Lon- 
don in  1765,  immediately  after  the  passage  of  the  Stamp  Act. 
The  phrase  is  graphic  enough  to  be  Franklin's,  but  it  has  been 
distorted  from  its  original  construction,  which  was  not  nearly  so 
expressive.  What  Franklin  really  wrote  was  :  "  Let  us  make  as 
good  a  night  of  it  as  we  can.  We  may  still  light  candles.  Fru- 
gality and  industry  will  go  a  great  way  towards  indemnifying  us." 
The  quotation  is  from  a  letter  to  Charles  Thomson,  of  Philadel- 
phia. 

An  Anchor  to  the  Windward. —  One  of  the  famous 
expressions  of  James  G.  Blaine  in  the  Mulligan  letters  (which 
see). 

Asylum  of  the  Oppressed  of  Every  Nation. —  This 
well-known  phrase  originated  in  the  Democratic  National  plat- 
form of  1856. 

Burn  This  Letter. —  A  Democratic  campaign  cry  in  the 
Cleveland-Blaine  canvass  of  1884.  Among  the  Mulligan  letters, 
containing  alleged  incriminating  evidence  against  Mr.  Blaine,  was 
one  which  had  ended  with  the  phrase  quoted.  (See  Mulligan 
Letters.) 

Caesar  Had  His  Brutus,  Charles  I.  His  Cromwell, 
and  George  III.  —  May  Profit  by  Their  Examples. 
If  That  Be  Treason,  Make  the  Most  of  It.  —  In  the  midst 
of  his  speech  denying  the  right  of  the  king  to  tax  the  colonies  in 
1765,  Patrick  Henry  vented  his  indignation  in  a  burst  of  impas- 
sioned eloquence,  as  quoted.  He  had  spoken  the  words,  "  and 
George  III.,"  when  he  was  interrupted  with  cries  of  "  Treason  !  " 
He  quickly  added,  defiantly :  "  If  that  be  treason,  make  the  most 
of  it." 

Cheap  Coats  Make  Cheap  Men. — An  aphorism  of 
President  Harrison,  who  used  it  in  connection  with  a  defence  of 
the  McKinley  Tariff  Bill  in  1891.  The  Democratic  opponents  of 
that  measure  having  asserted  that  a  reduction  in  tariff  duties  would 
make  the  price  of  coats,  for  instance,  cheaper  for  the  working- 
man,  the  President,  replying  to  this  argument,  used  the  phrase 
quoted.  The  implication  is  that  a  good  article  is  rarely  the 
cheapest  article,  and  that  only  cheap  men  will  buy  a  cheap  thing. 

Don't  Fire  Till  You  See  the  Whites  of  Their  Eyes. 
—  The  command  of  Colonel  Prescott  to  his  troops  at  the  Battle 
of  Bunker  Hill. 

Don't  Give  Up  the  Ship.  —The  words  used  by  Captain 
Lawrence,  of  the  United  States  frigate  Chesapeake,  as  he  was  being 
carried  below,  mortally  wounded,  during  the  engagement  between 


SAYINGS    OF    FAMOUS    AMERICANS.  343 

that   vessel    and    the    British    frigate    Shannon    in    the  War  of 
1812. 

Enemies  in  War,  in  Peace,  Friends. —  Thomas  Jeffer- 
son wrote  these  words  in  the  Declaration  of  Independence, 
referring  to  the  attitude  to  be  maintained  by  the  United  States 
towards  Great  Britain. 

England  a  Den  of  Pirates  and  France  a  Den  of 
Thieves. —  The  English  attacks  on  American  shipping  in  1807 
(see  Embargo  Act),  and  France's  determination  to  capture  every 
neutral  vessel  which  should  submit  to  being  searched,  called  forth, 
from  Jefferson,  in  a  private  letter,  the  declaration  that  "  England 
seemed  to  have  become  a  den  of  pirates  and  France  a  den  of 
thieves." 

Entangling  Alliances. —  This  is  another  of  Jefferson's 
happy  phrases.  It  is  found  in  his  inaugural  address,  in  a  passage 
in  which  he  speaks  of  the  principles  which  guided  the  founders  of 
the  Union.  He  says  :  "  Peace,  commerce,  and  honest  friendship 
with  all  nations,  entangling  alliances  with  none." 

First  in  War,  First  in  Peace,  and  First  in  the 
Hearts  of  His  Countrymen. —  From  the  resolutions  passed 
by  the  House  of  Representatives  on  the  death  of  Washington. 
The  resolutions  were  written  by  Henry  Lee,  of  Virginia. 

Give  Me  Liberty,  or  Give  Me  Death. —  Patrick  Henry, 
in  a  speech  in  the  Virginia  Convention,  in  March,  1775,  favoring 
a  resolution  "  that  the  colony  be  immediately  put  in  a  state  of 
defence,"  concluded  as  follows :  "  Is  life  so  dear,  or  peace  so 
sweet,  as  to  be  purchased  at  the  price  of  chains  and  slavery? 
Forbid  it,  Almighty  God  !  I  know  not  what  course  others  may 
take,  but  as  for  me,  give  me  liberty,  or  give  me  deatli !" 

God  Reigns,  and  the  Government  at  Washington 
Still  Lives. —  This  inspiring  utterance  was  delivered  by  James 
A.  Garfield,  on  April  15,  1865,  the  day  of  President  Lincoln's 
death.  In  Wall  Street,  New  York,  an  angry  mob  had  gathered, 
and  demanded  vengeance  for  Lincoln's  assassination. .  Trouble 
was  in  sight,  when  a  man  stepped  forth,  and  motioning  the 
crowd  to  silence,  spoke  as  follows  in  a  clear  and  far-reaching 
voice:  "Fellow-citizens, —  Clouds  and  darkness  are  around 
about  him.  His  pavilion  is  dark  waters  and  thick  clouds  of  the 
skies.  Justice  and  judgment  are  the  establishment  of  his  throne. 
Mercy  and  truth  shall  go  before  his  face.  God  reigns,  and  the 
government  at  Washington  still  lives."  Quickly  the  mob  dis- 
persed at  the  bidding  of  Garh'eld,  their  passions  subdued  by  his 
commanding  tones. 

Government  of  the  People,  by  the  People,  and  for 
the  People,  is  part  of  the  closing  sentence  of  Lincoln's  speech 


344  SAYINGS    OF    FAMOUS    AMERICANS. 

at  Gettysburg,  on  the  occasion  of  the  dedication  of  the  National 
Soldiers'  Monument.  That  part  of  the  speech  in  which  the  now 
famous  utterance  occurs  is  as  follows  :  "  It  is  rather  for  us  to  be 
here  dedicated  to  the  great  task  remaining  before  us  —  that  from 
these  honored  dead  we  take  increased  devotion  to  the  cause  for 
which  they  here  gave  the  last  full  measure  of  devo*;on  —  that  we 
here  highly  resolve  that  the  dead  shall  not  have  died  in  vain  ; 
that  the  nation,  under  God,  shall  have  a  new  birth  of  freedom ; 
and  that  the  government  of  the  people,  by  the  people,  and  for 
the  people,  shall  not  perish  from  the  earth." 

He  Fears  God,  Hates  the  Devil,  and  Votes  the 
Straight  Democratic  Ticket. —  This  saying,  which  originated 
with  "  Horizontal  Bill  "  Morrison,  is  often  quoted  by  politicians  at 
Washington.  It  refers  to  Rev.  William  H.  Milburn,  the  blind 
chaplain  of  the  House  of  Representatives,  in  nominating  whom  in 
the  Democratic  caucus  Congressman  William  R.  Morrison  used 
the  phrase  quoted.  It  evidently  pleased  the  Democrats,  for  Mr. 
Milburn  was  elected  and  has  acted  as  chaplain  ever  since. 

He  Smote  the  Rock  of  the  National  Resources  and 
Abundant  Streams  of  Revenue  Gushed  Forth. —  Said 
of  Alexander  Hamilton  by  Daniel  Webster,  in  a  speech  on 
Alexander  Hamilton's  famous  report  on  the  Public  Debt,  in  1790. 
(See  Finances,  Government.) 

He  Touched  the  Dead  Corpse  of  Public  Credit  and 
It  Sprung  Upon  Its  Feet. — This  was  said  by  Daniel  Web- 
stei  of  Alexander  Hamilton  in  a  speech.  (See  previous  para- 
graph.) 

I  Am  a  Democrat. —  Governor  David  B.  Hill,  of  New 
York,  in  a  speech  at  Brooklyn,  in  1890,  at  a  Democratic  love- 
feast  on  the  anniversary  of  Jefferson's  birthday,  gave  utterance 
to  this  sentiment,  which  evoked  the  greatest  enthusiasm.  Al- 
though it  was  not  a  new  statement  of  his  political  doctrine,  yet  it 
was  suggestive  of  great  meaning,  and  struck  a  sympathetic  chord. 
The  manner  in  which  it  was  uttered,  and  the  peculiar  political 
conditions  at  the  time  contributed  to  its  effect. 

I  Am  a  Republican,  Who  Carried  His  Sovereignty 
Under  His  Own  Hat —  Originally  uttered  by  A.  W.  Campbell, 
of  West  Virginia,  in  the  Republican  national  convention  of  1880. 
It  was  quoted  by  George  William  Curtis,  on  June  4,  1884,  at 
the  Republican  national  convention  in  Chicago.  Curtis  led  the 
Republican  opposition  to  Blaine,  and  in  his  speech  said :  "  A 
Republican  and  a  free  man  I  came  to  this  convention,  and  by  the 
grace  of  God  a  Republican  and  a  free  man  will  I  go  out  of  it." 
"  I  carry  my  sovereignty  under  my  hat,"  became  the  watchword 
of  the  Independents. 


SAYINGS    OF   FAMOUS    AMERICANS. 


345 


FRANKLIN'S    RULES    OF    SUCCESS. 


346  SAYINGS    OF   FAMOUS    AMERICANS. 

I  Do  Not  Feel  That  I  Shall  Prove  a  Deadhead  in 
the  Enterprise. —  This  sentence  was  in  the  celebrated  Mulli- 
gan letters,  which  passed  between  James  G.  Blaine  and  Warren 
Fisher.  (See  Mulligan  Letters.) 

I  Have  Killed  Seventeen  Roman  Pro-Consuls — 
William  Henry  Harrison's  inaugural  address  was  read  by  Daniel 
Webster  before  its  delivery.  Many  points  of  style  did  not 
please  Webster,  but  he  took  especial  ground  against  Harrison's 
lavish  use  of  allusions  to  Roman  history.  Webster  edited  the 
speech,  and  cut  out  much  of  its  ancient  historical  matter,  and 
when,  on  returning  home,  the  lady  of  the  house  at  which  lie 
stopped  remarked  that  he  looked  worn  out,  and  asked  if  anything 
had  happened,  Webster  replied,  "  You  would  think  that  some- 
thing had  happened  if  you  knew  what  I  have  done.  I  have  killed 
seventeen  Roman  pro-consuls." 

I  Propose  to  Fight  It  Out  on  This  Line,  if  It  Takes 
All  Summer. —  This  sentence  was  in  a  despatch  of  General 
Grant  to  the  Secretary  of  War  after  the  Battle  of  Spottsylvania, 
May,  1864. 

I  Still  Live. —  The  last  words  of  Daniel  Webster. 

I  Was  Born  an  American,  I  Live  an  American,  I 
Shall  Die  an  American. —  This  sentence  is  from  a  speech  of 
Daniel  Webster,  delivered  July  17,  1850. 

If  Anyone  Attempts  to  Haul  Down  the  American 
Flag,  Shoot  Him  on  the  Spot. —  In  December,  1860,  when 
New  Orleans  was  in  possession  of  the  secessionists,  Secretary  of 
War  John  A.  Dix  issued  an  order  to  the  captain  of  a  revenue 
cutter  at  that  port  to  bring  his  vessel  to  New  York.  The  captain 
refused  to  obey  the  order,  whereupon  Dix  wired  an  order  placing 
the  officer  under  arrest,  closing  his  despatch  with  the  now  famous 
utterance  quoted  above. 

In  the  Name  of  the  Great  Jehovah  and  the  Conti- 
nental Congress. —  When  in  May,  1775,  Ethan  Allen  surprised 
Fort  Ticonderoga,  then  in  the  hands  of  the  British,  he  demanded 
the  surrender  of  the  garrison  and  port.  When  the  commanding 
officer  asked  by  whose  authority,  Allen  replied  :  "  In  the  name 
of  the  Great  Jehovah  and  the  Continental  Congress." 

Let  No  Guilty  Man  Escape.—  These  words  were  attrib- 
uted to  General  Grant,  and  were  said  to  have  been  his  official 
endorsement  on  the  papers  setting  forth  the  criminal  conduct  of 
the  Whisky  Ring  (which  see). 

Liberty  and  Union  Now  and  Forever,  One  and  In- 
separable.—  The  concluding  words  of  Daniel  Webster's  second 
speech  in  reply  to  Hayne. 

Little  More  Grape,  Captain  Bragg —  During  the  battle 


SAYINGS    OF    FAMOUS    AMERICANS.  847 

of  Buena  Vista,  in  1847,  it  appeared  to  General  Taylor  that  the 
enemy  could  not  withstand  the  discharge  of  grape  from  Captain 
Bragg's  battery,  and  shouted :  "  A  little  more  grape,  Captain 
Bragg."  The  enemy  were  disastrously  defeated,  and  the  phrase 
has  lived  from  that  day. 

No  Terms  Other  than  an  Unconditional  Surrender. 
—  When,  in  February,  1862,  General  Grant,  commanding  Union 
forces  before  Fort  Donelson  in  Tennessee,  had  cut  off  all  chance 
of  the  enemy's  escape,  he  received  from  General  Buckner,  who 
commanded  the  rebel  forces,  an  inquiry  as  to  what  terms  of  sur- 
render would  be  allowed.  Grant  replied  as  above,  and  added: 
"  I  propose  to  move  immediately  upon  your  works."  General 
Buckner  surrendered. 

Office  of  President  Is  Essentially  Executive  in  Its 
Nature.  —  Grover  Cleveland  in  his  letter  accepting  the  nomina- 
tion of  the  Democratic  party  in  1884,  used  the  phrase,  which  has 
since  passed  into  common  use  :  "  The  office  of  President  is  essen- 
tially executive  in  its  nature." 

On  to  Richmond.  — As  editor -of  the  New  York  Tribune 
during  the  Civil  War,  Horace  Greeley  gave  birth  to  this  war 
cry,  which  was  taken  up  by  those  who  advocated  an  immediate 
forward  movement  on  the  Confederate  capital. 

Only  Good  Indian  is  a  Dead  Indian,  The.  —  This  say- 
ing lias  always  been  credited  to  the  late  Gen.  George  Crooke, 
the  Indian  fighter,  but  lie  made  strong  denial  of  having  uttered  it. 
Whatever  the  origin  of  the  phrase,  it  has  passed  into  common  use, 
and  represents  the  doctrine  of  those  who  oppose  the  red  man's 
civilization. 

Pernicious  Activity. — Among  the  words  and  phrases  con- 
tributed to  the  vocabulary  of  politics  by  Grover  Cleveland,  none 
were  so  widely  discussed  as  "pernicious  activity."  They  are 
found  in  a  letter  to  the  heads  of  departments,  in  which  he  said 
"  office-holders  are  neither  disfranchised  nor  forbidden  the  exer- 
cise of  political  privileges ;  but  their  privileges  are  not  enlarged, 
nor  is  their  duty  to  party  increased  to  pernicious  activity  by  office- 
holding." 

Public  Office  Is  a  Public  Trust. —  A  famous  utterance  of 
Grover  Cleveland.  It  became  the  battle-cry  of  the  Independents. 

Put  None  but  Americans  on  Guard  To-night. — This 
occurs  in  an  order  by  General  Washington  on  the  eve  of  a 
battle  in  the  Revolutionary  War. 

Rum,  Romanism,  and  Rebellion — The  Rev.  Dr.  Burch- 
ard  used  this  phrase  in  a  speech  at  the  Fifth  Avenue  Hotel  in 
New  York,  a  few  days  before  the  Presidential  election  of  1884. 
Mr.  Blaine  was  receiving  a  delegation  of  ministers,  of  whom  Rev. 


348  SAYINGS    OF    FAMOUS    AMERICANS. 

Dr.  Burchard  was  the  spokesman.  In  the  course  of  his  remarks 
he  referred  to  the  Democratic  party  as  the  party  of  "Rum, 
Romanism  and  Rebellion."  Some  criticism  of  Elaine  was  made 
next  day  for  not  rebuking  the  speaker,  but  Blaine  said  that  he 
was  not  listening,  his  thoughts  at  the  time  being  on  the  subject  of 
his  own  speech.  The  Democrats  made  the  most  of  the  insult  to 
their  party.  It  has  never  been  questioned  that  many  votes, 
especially  of  Catholics,  were  turned  away  from  Mr.  Blaine. 
Cleveland's  majority  over  Blaine  in  New  York  was  only  1,047, 
so  that  524  votes  lost  to  Cleveland  would  have  turned  the  State 
in  Elaine's  favor,  and  elected  him. 

Sink  or  Swim,  Live  or  Die,  Survive  or  Perish,  I 
Give  My  Hand  and  My  Heart  to  This  Vote — Supposed 
to  have  been  uttered  by  John  Adams  in  a  speech  in  Congress  in 
1776,  before  voting  in  favor  of  the  Declaration  of  Independence. 

Suicide  is  Confession. —  Original  with  Daniel  Webster  in 
his  famous  speech  in  prosecution  of  the  White  murder  case  in 
1830  at  Salem,  Mass.  One  of  the  prisoners,  Richard  Cronin- 
shield,  had  committed  suicide  in  jail,  a  fact  which  Webster  seized 
upon  to  coin  a  phrase  which  became  immortal. 

Surplus  is  Easier  to  Handle  Than  a  Deficit. —  This 
phrase,  originating  with  D'Israeli,  was  used  by  the  Republicans 
in  the  Harrison-Cleveland  campaign  of  1888,  as  a  reply  to 
Democratic  attacks  on  the  accumulation  of  the  surplus  by  reason 
of  high  tariff  duties.  It  is  said  that  Col.  Fred  Grant  used  the 
phrase  first  in  this  connection. 

Tariff  is  a  Local  Issuer  —  In  the  midst  of  the  Presidential 
canvass  of  1880,  Gen.  Winfield  S.  Hancock,  the  Democratic 
candidate,  said  in  a  newspaper  interview  that  the  tariff  question 
was  a  local  issue.  The  statement,  which  went  uncontradicted  by 
its  author,  was  eagerly  seized  upon  by  the  opposition  press,  and 
used  to  the  party's  disadvantage. 

Tariff  is  a  Tax.  —  This  became  a  campaign  cry  of  the 
Tariff  Reformers,  when  in  the  campaign  of  1888  it  was  reiterated 
many  times  in  speeches  by  Allen  G.  Thurman,  the  Democratic 
candidate  for  Vice-President. 

Tell  Them  to  Obey  the  Laws  and  Support  the  Con- 
stitution.—  This  was  the  dying  message  to  his  son  of  Stephen 
A.  Douglass,  and  was  meant  for  the  members  of  the  Northern 
wing  of  the  Democratic  party,  which  had  supported  him  for  Presi- 
dent in  1860. 

There  Never  was  a  Good  War  or  a  Bad  Peace A 

maxim  of  Benjamin  Franklin. 

This  is  the  Last  of  Earth;  I  am  Content.— These  were 
the  dying  words  of  John  Quincy  Adams. 


SAYINGS    OF    FAMOUS    AMERICANS.  349 

Thomas  Jefferson  Still  Survives. —  These  were  the  last 
words  of  John  Adams.  As  a  matter  of  fact,  the  statement  was 
not  true,  Jefferson  having  passed  away  a  few  hours  before,  but 
the  dying  man  did  not  know  it. 

Union  Must  Be  Preserved. —  This  phrase  originated  with 
Andrew  Jackson,  who,  when  asked  for  a  sentiment  at  a  dinner  in 
celebration  of  Jefferson's  birthday,  in  1830,  responded  with, 
"  Our  Federal  Union  ;  it  must  be  preserved."  The  sentiment 
was  especially  appropriate,  the  excitement  over  nullification  being 
very  fierce  at  the  time. 

Very  Hungry,  and  Very  Thirsty. —  In  a  speech  at  the 
Democratic  national  convention,  of  1884,  George  William  Curtis, 
the  Mugwump  leader,  characterized  the  Democrats  in  their  atti- 
tude toward  the  offices,  as  being  "  very  hungry  and  very  thirsty." 
This  fact,  however,  he  argued,  should  not  deter  the  patriotic 
Republican  voter  from  joining  the  Democratic  party. 

War  to  the  Knife  and  the  Knife  to  the  Hilt Attrib- 
uted to  the  Republicans  by  the  Anti-War  Democrats  during  the 
Civil  War. 

We  Are  Confronted  with  a  Condition,  not  a  Theory. 
—  This  was  in  President  Cleveland's  famous  message  on  the 
tariff,  sent  to  Congress  in  1887,  in  which  he  advocated  wholesale 
reforms  in  the  system  of  protective  duties.  The  message  caused 
a  profound  sensation  because  it  was  so  unexpected,  and  it  is  be- 
lieved to  have  contributed  greatly  to  his  defeat  at  the  Presidential 
election  the  following  year. 

We   Have  Met  the   Enemy  and  They  Are  Ours. — 
This  was  the  wording  of  a  message  sent  by  Commodore  Perry  to 
President  Harrison   on  Sept.  10,  1813,  after  he  had  encountered 
the  British  fleet  on  Lake  Erie,  and  defeated  them  against  great  odds. 

We  Love  Him  for  the  Enemies  He  Has  Made.  - 
This  is  a  paraphrase  of  a  line  from  Shakespeare,  and  was  applied  by 
Governor  Bragg,  of  Wisconsin,  to  Grover  Cleveland,  in  nominat- 
ing the  latter  for  the  Presidency  in  1884.  The  enemies  referred 
to  were  the  minority  members  of  the  New  York  delegation,  who 
tried  hard  to  break  the  unit  rule,  and  thereby  bring  about  Cleve- 
land's defeat. 

We  Must  All  Hang  Together.  —  When  the  signers  of  the 
Declaration  of  Independence  had  affixed  their  names  to  the  docu- 
ment, someone  remarked:  "Now  we  must  all  hang  together." 
"  Yes,"  said  Franklin,  "  or  we  shall  all  hang  separately."  Corpu- 
lent Benjamin  Harrison,  of  Virginia,  said  to  slender  Elbridge 
Gerry,  of  Massachusetts  :  "  I  shall  have  the  advantage  of  you ;  for 
my  neck,  probably,  will  be  broken  at  the  first  drop,  whereas  you 
may  have  to  dangle  for  half  an  hour." 


350  SCRUB    RACE    FOR   THE    PRESIDENCY. 

What  a  Glorious  Morning  Is  This  I  —  The  utterance  of 
Samuel  Adams  the  da}'  of  the  Battle  of  Lexington,  when,  by  the 
act  of  the  British  in  firing  upon  the  Americans,  all  hope  of  con- 
ciliation was  past. 

With  Malice  Toward  None,  and  Charity  for  All. — 
Originated  with  Lincoln,  in  his  address  on  the  occasion  of  his 
second  inauguration. 

You  Can  Fool  Some  of  the  People  All  the  Time,  and 
You  Can  Fool  All  the  People  Some  of  the  Time,  But 
You  Can't  Fool  All  the  People  All  the  Time. —  An  apho- 
rism popularly  credited  to  Abraham  Lincoln. 

Scholar  in  Politics.  —  A  derisive  name  for  the  civil-service 
reformers  and  other  political  purists.  Those  who  have  been  thus 
designated  are  men  of  the  stamp  of  the  late  James  Russell 
Lowell  and  George  William  Curtis,  both  scholars,  and,  from  the 
politician's  point  of  view,  not  politicians.  The  advent  of  the 
scholar  in  politics  was  contemporaneous  with  that  of  the  mug- 
wump. 

Scrub  Race  for  the  Presidency. — During  the  "era  of 
good  feeling"  (which  see)  the  Presidential  election  created  no 
popular  excitement.  Candidates  had  been  nominated  by  the 
caucuses  of  Congressmen,  but  in  1820,  there  had  been  opposition 
to  the  re-election  of  President  Monroe,  so  the  caucuses  were 
omitted.  In  1824,  William  H.  Crawford,  of  Georgia,  tried  to 
revive  the  caucus  system  of  nominations,  but  only  a  small  part 
of  the  whole  body  of  Congressmen  obeyed  the  call.  Crawford 
himself  was  nominated  by  the  Republican  caucus,  but  this  didn't 
help  him  to  any  extent.  There  being  no  recognized  parties,  the 
election  was  none  other  than  a  personal  contest  between  Henry 
Clay,  Crawford,  J.  Q.  Adams,  and  Andrew  Jackson.  Calhoun, 
then  Secretary  of  War,  was  supported  for  the  Vice-Presidency  by 
all  four  candidates  for  President.  The  House  decided  the  election, 
there  having  been  chosen  no  majority  of  electors,  and  Jackson 
won.  Calhoun  was  chosen  as  Vice-President.  The  contest  was 
humorously  spoken  of  as  "  a  scrub  race  for  the  Presidency."  (See 
How  the  President  is  Elected.) 

Seal  of  the  United  States,  The  Great.— It  was  only  after 
several  sketches  of  seals  had  been  submitted  for  its  approval  that 
Congress  in  1782  accepted  and  formally  adopted  "  The  Great 
Seal  of  the  United  States  of  America."  The  seal  in  use  now  is 
not  the  same  as  that  first  adopted,  but  it  bears,  in  its  general 
features,  a  close  resemblance.  Congress  appointed  a  committee, 
on  the  same  day  that  the  Declaration  of  Independence  was  signed, 
to  devise  a  Great  Seal  for  the  United  States.  The  committee 


SEAL    OF    THE    UNITED    STATES. 


351 


GREAT  SEAL  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 


consisted  of  Benjamin  Franklin,  John  Adams,  and  Thomas  Jef- 
ferson. Two  months  afterwards  they  reported  in  favor  of  a  seal 
which  should  have  on  one  side  the  arms  of  the  United  States, 
together  with  various  engravings  emblematic  of  England,  Scot- 
land, Ireland,  France,  Germany, 
Holland,  and  Belgium.  Encircling 
the<e  there  should  be  initial  letters 
in  black,  indicative  of  the  thirteen 
original  States.  The  Goddess  of 
Liberty  and  the  Goddess  of  Justice 
should  support  the  shield,  one  on 
either  side.  Midway  above  them, 
there  should  be  the  eye  of  Provi- 
dence in  a  radiant  triangle  whose 
glory  should  extend  over  the 
shield  and  beyond  the  figures, 
Beneath  the  shield  should  be  the 
motto  :  E  Pluribus  Unum. 
On  the  outer  edge  of  the  seal 
there  should  be  engraved  in  bold 
letters  :  Seal  of  the  United  States  of  America.  On  the  reverse 
side,  the  committee  favored  a  representation  of  Pharoah  in  an 
open  chariot,  a  crown  on  his  head  and  a  sword  in  his  hand, 
passing  through  the  Red  Sea  in  pursuit  of  the  Israelites.  A 
pillar  of  fire  in  an  overhanging  cloud,  expressive  of  the  Divine 
presence,  and  shining  on  Moses,  standing  on  the  shore,  was 
another  feature  of  this  unique  design.  The  motto  on  this  side 
em-ircling  all  should  be :  "  Rebellion  to  Tyrants  is  Obedi- 
ence to  God." 

This  design  was  elaborate  and  symbolic  enough  to  satisfy 
almost  anybody,  but  Congress  was  not  satisfied,  and  after  tabling 
the  report  for  nearly  three  years,  referred  it  to  another  committee 
who  reported  in  May,  1779,  in  favor  of  a  seal  four  inches  in  diam- 
eter, with  the  arms  of  the  United  States  on  one  side,  and  the 
shield  charged  in  the  field  with  thirteen  diagonal  stripes  alter- 
nately red  and  white.  On  one  side  of  the  shield  there  should  be 
a  warrior,  gun  in  hand,  and  a  figure  of  Peace  holding  an  olive 
branch.  The  reverse  side  should  have  a  figure  of  Liberty,  seated, 
with  the  staff  and  cap.  There  should  be  two  mottoes,  one  on 
each  side  of  the  seal,  Bello  vel  Pace,  and  on  the  other  the 
word  Semper.  The  report  of  the  committee  was  recommitted, 
and  a  year  later,  another  design  for  the  seal  was  submitted.  This 
design,  submitted  on  May  10,  1779,  was  for  a  seal  three  inches  in 
diameter,  the  shield  to  be  in  a  field  azure,  with  thirteen  diagonal 
red  and  argent  stripes,  with  a  warrior  holding  a  sword,  Peace 


352  SECESSION. 

holding  the  olive  branch,  and  with  a  radiant  constellation  of 
thirteen  stars.  The  mottoes  should  be  Bello  vel  Pace,  and 
Virtute  Perennis.  This  report  was  rejected.  Another  com- 
mittee was  appointed  in  April,  1782,  and  made  a  report  very 
similar  to  the  preceding  one,  which  Congress  at  once  rejected. 

Congress  then  left  the  matter  in  charge  of  its  secretary,  to 
whom,  in  the  summer  of  1782,  William  Barton,  of  Philadelphia, 
submitted  a  design,  which  would  probably  have  been  adopted 
with  certain  modifications.  But  John  Adams,  while  in  England 
in  1779,  had  received  from  an  antiquarian  there  suggestions  for 
a  seal  which  had  so  much  merit  that  Secretary  Thomson  em- 
bodied them  in  Barton's  design,  so  that  when  the  great  seal 
of  the  United  States  of  America  was  decided  upon,  it  was  the 
conception  of  an  American  and  an  Englishman.  The  descrip- 
tion of  it,  in  heraldic  phraseology,  is  as  follows  :  — 

ARMS  :  Paleways  of  thirteen  pieces  argent  and  gules ;  a  chief 
azure;  the  escutcheon  on  the  breast  of  the  American  eagle  dis- 
played proper,  holding  in  his  dexter  talon  an  olive  branch,  and  in 
his  sinister  a  bundle  of  thirteen  arrows,  all  proper;  and  in  his 
beak  a  scroll  inscribed  with  this  motto:  E  PLURIBUS  UNUM. 
For  the  CREST:  Over  the  head  of  the  eagle  which  appears  above 
the  escutcheon,  a  glory  or,  breaking  through  a  cloud  proper  and 
surrounding  thirteen  stars,  forming  a  constellation,  argent,  and 
on  an  azure  field.  REVERSE.  A  pyramid  unfinished.  In  the 
zenith  an  eye  in  a  triangle,  surrounded  with  a  glory  proper ; 
over  the  eye  these  words,  ANNUIT  CCEPTIS  ("God  has  favored 
the  undertaking.")  On  the  base  of  the  pyramid  the  numerical 
letters  MDCCLXXVI,  and  underneath  the  following  motto :  Novus 
ORDO  SECLORUM  ("A  New  Series  of  Ages").  The  reverse  of 
the  seal  has  not  been  cut. 

A  new  die  was  cut  in  1841,  but  it  cannot  be  said  to  have  im- 
proved upon  the  old  one.  The  die  in  use  to-day  was  cut  in  1885, 
and  shows  fine  artistic  workmanship.  The  great  seal  is  in  the 
custody  of  the  Secretary  of  State,  who  attaches  it  to  commissions 
bearing  the  President's  signature. 

Seals  of  the  States  with  Their  Mottoes.  (See  Mottoes  of 
States,  etc.) 

Secession. —  The  right  of  a  State  to  secede  from  the  Union  is 
a  doctrine  which  has  been  advanced  by  nearly  every  State  of  the 
Union  at  some  time  or  other  in  its  career,  and  it  even  was  main- 
tained in  New  England,  where  the  hostility  to  secession  was 
strongest  in  the  years  immediately  preceding  the  Civil  War. 
(See  Hartford  Convention.)  Southern  statesmen  frequently  have 
taunted  those  of  New  England  with  this  early  belief  in  the  doc- 


SECRET    SOCIETIES. 


353 


trine  of  State  Rights.  The  doctrine  was  embodied  in  the  Ken- 
tucky Resolutions  (see  Alien  and  Sedition  Laws),  in  the 
Nullification  Ordinance  (which  see),  and  in  the  discussion  grow- 
ing out  of  the  admission  of  Texas,  Kansas,  Nebraska,  and  other 
States. 

Secret  Societies. 

Masons.  Odd   Fellows. 

Fraternal  Societies. 

The  secret  societies  of  the  United  States  are  more  numerous 
and  influential  than  those  of  any  other  country.  The  oldest  and 
more  powerful  of  them  is  the  Free-Masons,  which  it  is  estimated 
has  a  membership  of  673,743.  The  organization  is  generally 
supposed  to  have  had  an  Oriental  origin,  although  this  assertion 
has  never  been  authenticated.  In 
ancient  times  in  Asia  Minor,  there 
was  a  society  known  as  the  Drony- 
sia3  Fraternity,  which  was  composed 
of  architects  and  builders  of 
temples  and  theatres.  Their  exist- 
ence was  made  known  by  the 
Greeks  who  migrated  there  from 
Attica.  The  Fraternity  is  supposed 
to  have  helped  Solomon  build  the 
temple  at  Tyre.  From  this  begin- 
ning the  organization  of  masons - 
and  builders  in  Europe  in  the 
Middle  Ages  is  supposed  to  have 
originated.  Many  of  the  workmen 
being  foreigners,  it  became  neces- 
sary to  devise  some  common  lan- 
guage for  convenient  intercourse, 
and  a  system  of  signs  and  symbols  was  formulated.  The 
members  were  all  skilled  at  their  trade,  and  for  this  reason  they 
were  made  the  favorites  of  the  church,  which  bestowed  upon 
them  favors. 

The  name  of  "  Free"  Mason  arose  either  from  the  fact  that 
the  members  were  free  of  certain  exactions  and  penalties  imposed 
upon  other  persons,  or  from  the  fact  that  they  worked  in  free- 
stone, requiring  a  higher  class  of  work,  whereas  other  workmen 
worked  in  rough  stone.  Eminent  men  joined  the  organization, 
because  membership  in  it  was  a  badge  of  respectability  and  social 
importance.  Henry  VI.  and  Plenry  VII.  were  members  in  Eng- 
land. The  strength  of  the  Masons  by  1729  had  made  itself  felt 
in  every  nation  of  Europe. 


MASONIC    TEMPLE,     NEW    YORK. 


354  SECRET    SOCIETIES. 

Its  First  Appearance  in  this  country  is  involved  in  some 
uncertainty,  but  it  is  now  commonly  accepted  that  the  first  lodge 
was  St.  John's  lodge  in  Philadelphia,  established  in  1730,  of 
which  Benjamin  Franklin  was  a  member.  In  the  same  year, 
the  Duke  of  Norfolk,  Grand  Master  of  the  Free  and  Accepted 
Masons  of  New  England,  gave  an  appointment  to  Daniel  Coxe, 
of  New  Jersey,  as  Provincial  Grand  Master  of  New  York,  Kc\v 
Jersey,  and  Pennsylvania.  The  organization  quickly  spread,  and 
lodges  were  formed  in  all  the  States.  The  first  lodge  in  Boston 
was  in  1733. 

By  1829  the  Masons  were  very  powerful,  and  became  the 
object  of  attack  by  persons  who  were  opposed  to  their  secret 
organization.  This  attack  was  induced  by  the  supposed  murder 
of  a  man  named  Morgan,  who  was  about  to  print  a  book  expos- 
ing the  secrets  of  the  fraternity.  (See  Anti-Masonic  Party.) 

The  Aims  of  the  fraternity  are  social  intercourse  and  mutual 
help,  and  in  this  direction  it  unquestionably  does  much  good. 
The  first  degree  is  that  of  entered  apprentice,  the  second  that  of 
fellowcraft,  the  third  that  of  master  mason.  The  officers  of  a 
lodge  are  the  worshipful  master,  the  senior  warden,  the  junior 
warden,  treasurer,  secretary,  senior  deacon,  junior  deacon,  tiler, 
chaplain  and  steward.  In  each  State  the  lodges  constitute  a 
Grand  Lodge,  of  which  there  are  grand  officers;  each  Grand 
Lodge  has  a  delegate  who  represents  the  lodge  in  the  national 
organization.  The  highest  rank  of  all  is  that  of  the  Royal  Arch 
Masons,  which  is  attained  by  but  few.  These  officers  are  : 
General  Grand  High  Priest,  Deputy  General  Grand  High  Priest, 
General  Grand  King,  General  Grand  Scribe,  General  Grand 
Treasurer,  General  Grand  Secretary,  General  Grand  Captain  of 
the  Host,  General  Grand  Principal  Sojourner,  General  Grand 
Royal  Arch  Captain,  General  Grand  Master  3d  Vail,  General 
Grand  Master,  2d  Vail,  General  Grand  Master,  1st  Vail. 

The  number  of  Grand  Chapters,  each  representing  a  State 
(except  Pennsylvania,  Virginia,  and  West  Virginia),  is  42,  and 
the  number  of  enrolled  subordinate  chapters  is  2,009,  exclusive 
of  22  subordinate  chapters  in  the  Territories  of  the  United  States, 
Sandwich  Islands,  and  the  Chinese  Empire,  which  are  under  the 
immediate  jurisdiction  of  the  General  Grand  Chapter. 

The  total  membership  of  the  2,069  enrolled  subordinate  chap- 
ters is  141,901.  The  degrees  conferred  in  Chapters  are  Mark 
Master,  Past  Master,  Most  Excellent  Master  and  Royal  Arch 
Mason.  The  Grand  Lodges  of  the  United  States  are  in  full 
affiliation  with  the  English  Grand  Lodge,  of  which  the  Prince  of 
Wales  is  Grand  Master,  and  the.  Grand  Lodges  of  Ireland,  Scot- 
land, Cuba,  Peru,  South  Australia,  New-South  Wales  and  Victo- 


SECRET    SOCIETIES.  355 

ria,  and  also  with  the  Masons  of  Germany  and  Austria.  They 
are  not  in  affiliation  and  do  not  correspond  with  the  Masons  of 
France.  Freemasonry  is  under  the  ban  of  the  Church  in  Spain, 
Italy,  and  other  Catholic  countries,  and  the  membership  is  small 
and  scattered. 

The  Highest  degree  in  Masonry  is  the  thirty-third,  and  less 
than  five  hundred  Americans  have  reached  it.  Among  these  are  : 
Gen.  Benjamin  F.  Butler,  Judge  William  A.  Richardson,  Gen. 
Gustavus  W.  Smith,  of  the  Confederate  Army;  James  W.  Husted, 
John  Boyd  Thacher,  of  Albany;  J.  Edward  Simmons,  ex-Gov. 
Edward  F.  Jones,  ex-Gov.  George  Hoadley,  J.  H.  McVicker,  and 
ex-Mayor  Dewitt  C.  Cregier,  of  Chicago;  W.  R.  Alger,  and  Rev. 
Minot  J.  Savage,  of  Boston. 

Odd  Fellows.  —  The  second  most  powerful  secret  organiza- 
tion is  the  Odd  Fellows,  whose  membership  is  647,471.  The 
organization  is  beneficial  in  its  design.  It  originated  in  England 
about  1745,  but  did  not  acquire  much  power  until  1814,  when  all 
the  English  lodges  were  incorporated  into  "  The  Independent 
Order  of  Odd  Fellows  of  the  Manchester  Unity."  The  first  or- 
ganization in  America  was  in  1816,  at  New  York,  but  it  did  not 
live.  In  1819,  a  Grand  Lodge,  clothed  with  powers  from  the 
Manchester  Unity,  and  bearing  the  title  of  "No.  1,  Washington 
Lodge,  the  Grand  Lodge  of  Maryland  and  the  United  States  of 
America"  was  organized.  In  1823,  the  self-constituted  lodges  at 
Philadelphia,  New  York,  and  Boston  recognized  the  Maryland 
Lodge  as  the  only  official  lodge,  and  received  charters  from  it. 
The  Objects  of  the  organization  are  "to  relieve  the  distressed,  to 
visit  the  sick,  bury  the  dead,  and  educate  the  orphan,"  and  also 
to  elevate  morally  and  spiritually  its  members.  Candidates  for 
membership  must  be  twenty-one  years  of  age,  white,  and  must 
express  their  belief  in  a  Supreme  Being.  Only  those  who  have 
attained  the  third  or  scarlet  degree  in  a  lodge  are  eligible  for 
membership  in  an  encampment.  The  encampment  confers  thi-ee 
degrees.  The  Grand  Lodge  is  composed  of  past  presiding 
officers  of  subordinate  lodges,  and  the  Sovereign  Grand  Lodge  is 
made  up  of  members  of  the  several  grand  bodies.  The  Odd 
Fellows  is  a  rich  and  powerful  organization,  and  owns  many 
handsome  edifices.  The  American  organization  is  not  now  in 
affiliation  with  the  English  order  entitled  the  Manchester  Unity 
Odd  Fellows.  The  Total  Relief  paid  by  the  Independent  Order 
of  Odd  Fellows,  year  ending  Dec.  31,  1890,  was  $2,917,688.13; 
brothers  relieved,  80,242 ;  widowed  families  relieved,  190,978; 
paid  for  relief  of  brothers,  $1,812,313.65  ;  for  widowed  families, 
$150,700.22  ;  education  of  orphans,  $171,408.33.  The  organization 
is  especially  strong  in  Pennsylvania,  where  it  has  97,000  members. 


356  SECRET    SOCIETIES. 

Ancient  Order  of  United  Workmen. — This  working- 
man's  beneficial  order  was  organized  in  1K68,  and  now  numbers 
about  270,000  members.  There  are  27  Grand  Lodges,  and  over 
4  000  subordinate  lodges.  Since  its  foundation,  it  has  disbursed 
in  benefits  over  $37,000,000,  and  over  $5,000,000  in  charity. 

Knights  Templars. — This  order  is  of  French  origin,  although 
the  American  organization  is  an  independent  body.  It  has 
thirty-nine  Grand  Commanderies,  over  85,000  members,  besides 
2,000  in  subordinate  commanderies.  The  commandery  degrees 
conferred  are  Red  Cross  Knight,  Knight  Templar,  and  Knight  of 
Malta.  Masons  who  have  reached  the  degrees  of  Master  Mason 
or  Royal  Arch  Mason  are  admitted. 

Independent  Order  of  Good  Templars. —  The  object 
of  this  organization  is  apparent  from  the  following  pledge  to 
which  all  candidates  for  membership  are  required  to  subscribe, 
viz.,  that  they  "  will  never  make,  buy,  sell,  use,  furnish,  nor  cause 
to  be  furnished  to  others,  as  a  beverage,  any  spirituous  or  malt 
liquors,  wine  or  cider,  and  will  discountenance  the  manufacture 
and  sale  thereof  in  all  proper  ways."  There  are  over  400,000 
members,  and  a  juvenile  branch  having  160,000  members.  The 
Grand  Lodges,  one  hundred  in  number,  are  distributed  through 
more  than  twenty  different  nationalities. 

Royal  Arcanum.  —  This  order  was  founded  in  1877,  and 
has  a  membership  of  about  120,000  ;  the  number  of  Grand  Coun- 
cils is  nineteen,  with  subordinate  councils  to  the  number  of  1,300. 
The  benefits  made  up  to  June  1,  1891,  aggregated  16,500,000. 

Ancient  Order  of  Foresters. — This  order  extends  through- 
out the  civilized  world,  having  branches  in  twenty-eight  different 
nationalities.  The  American  branch,  which  was  the  parent 
branch,  was  founded  in  1864.  The  membership  in  all  the  Grand 
Courts  and  subordinate  courts  is  over  800,000,  the  American 
branch  having  904,000  members. 

Improved  Order  of  Red  Men. —  The  total  membership 
in  all  countries  is  about  110.000;  in  the  United  States,  it  is 
16,268.  The  order  was  founded  1872,  and  has  an  auxiliary  branch 
for  women,  known  as  the  "  Degree  of  Pocahontas." 

Knights  of  Honor. —  The  number  of  members  in  this 
organization  is  about  132,000  ;  benefits  disbursed  since  its  organi- 
zation in  1873,  36,500,000. 

The  other  chief  fraternal  societies  having  a  membership  in  the 
United  States  are,  Knights  of  Pythias,  263,847  ;  Improved  Order 
of  Red  Men,  111,644;  Royal  Arcanum,  118,454;  Knights  and 
Ladies  of  Honor,  70,419;  American  Legion  of  Honor,  63,751 ; 
Knights  of  the  Maccabees,  Supreme  Tent,  62,580;  Modern 
Woodmen  of  America,  53,000;  Order  of  United  American 


SEVENTH   OF   MARCH    SPEECH.  357 

Mechanics,  48,517;  Equitable-  Aid  Union,  43,250  ;.  Order  of 
Chosen  Friends,  38,821  ;  Catholic  Mutual  Benefit  Association, 
35,000 ;  National  Union,  26,300  ;  Independent  Order  of  B'nai 
B'rith,  25,478;  Catholic  Benevolent  Legion,  23,553;  Order  of 
United  Friends,  22,304;  Catholic  Knights  of  America,  21,093; 
Order  of  the  Golden  Cross,  17,393;  Royal  Templars  of  Tem- 
perance, 15,133  ;  Ancient  Order  of  Druids,  15,000;  Royal  Society 
of  Good  Fellows,  13,084 ;  United  Order  of  Pilgrim  Fathers, 
12,443.  The  Total  Membership  in  secret  societies  of  all 
kinds  is  over  2,80i>,()00. 

Sectional  President.     (See  Presidents  of  the  United  States.) 
Seven  Mule  Bamum.      (See  Nicknames  of  Famous  Ameri- 
cans.) 

Seventh  Of  March  Speech.  —  This  refers  to  an  extraordinary 
speech  by  Daniel  Webster  in  the  Senate  on  March  7, 1850,  in  the 
debate  growing  out  of  the  Clay  resolutions  regarding  the  Compro- 
mise of  1850.  In  his  speech  Webster  antagonized  the  abolitionists 
by  his  utterances  in  opposition  to  the  restriction  of  slavery,  his  pre- 
vious views  on  which  had  placed  him  squarely  against  the  South. 
It  was  charged  that  his  sudden  change  of  opinion  was  influenced 
by  his  desire  to  secure  the  nomination  for  President. 
Sharp  Knife.  (See  Presidents  of  the  United  States.) 
Shinplasters.  —  During  the  Avar,  private  individuals  not  being 
able  to  secure  small  change,  they  issued  private  notes  of  ten, 
twenty-five,  and  fifty  cents  denomination,  and  circulated  them  in 
their  business.  The  notes  were  called  shinplasters,  because  they 
had  no  value  outside  of  particular  localities,  except  possibly 
as  plasters  for  broken  shins.  The  small  notes  issued  by  the  gov- 
ernment in  after  years  from  this  source  derived  the  name  of 
shinplasters. 

Ship-Building. 

Packets  and  Clippers.  Ocean  Disasters. 

Steamboats.  Great  Lake  Navigation. 

Ocean  Steamships.  .     American  Carrying  Trade. 

Subsidies. 

The  first  ship  built  in  this  country -was  the  Virginia,  which  was 
built  in  1607,  at  the  mouth  of  the  Kennebec  River,  in  Maine,  a 
State  which  has  always  been  noted  for  its  ships.  The  vessel  was 
built  by  colonists  who  used  it  in  returning  home,  having  become 
discouraged  with  their  new  life.  The  second  ship  built  was 
the  Onrest,  which  was  constructed  at  New  York,  in  1615-16. 
New  England  early  in  her  career  took  the  lead  in  ships,  and 
many  of  her  people  were  engaged  in  shipping.  Her  vessels, 


358  SHIP-BUILDING. 

however,  were  practically  annihilated  by  the  British  fleets  in  the 
Revolutionary  War,  and  when  the  war  was  over  an  era  of  ship- 
building was  inaugurated  which  attained  large  proportions,  and 
was  famous  for  the  perfection  of  its  vessels,  and  especially  for 
their  speed. 

The  Early  American  Ship-Builders  aimed  to  construct 
their  vessels  as  nearly  as  possible  upon  the  lines  of  a  fish ;  their 
success  in  this  direction  led  to  the  imitation  of  their  models  by 
many  foreign  designers.  Packets  were  run  between  New  York 
and  English  ports  as  early  as  1815.  They  had  two  decks,  and 
were  swift  and  substantially  made.  The  first  three-decker  was 
the  Guy  Mannering,  which  was  built  at  New  York  in  1849,  and 
quickly  set  the  fashion  for  packet  ships  which  were  built  there- 
after. The  success  of  the  packet  ships  induced  the  English  gov- 
ernment to  subsidize  the  Cunard  line,  which  in  1840  sent  out  a 
steamship,  the  Britannia,  and  has  continued  the  service  ever  since. 
(See  Steam  Navigation.)  The  tendency  in  ship-building  was 
now  towards  larger  and  larger  ships.  The  packet  was  followed 
by  the  clipper  ship,  about  1840  to  1850,  built  low  in  the  water, 
with  a  sharp  bow,  fine  water-lines,  and  tall  masts  which  carried 
an  immense  spread  of  canvas. 

The  immigration  to  California,  in  1848  and  on,  led  to  a  great 
boom  in  the  clipper-built  ships,  and  about  this  time  the  American 
Carrying  Trade  was  at  the  height  of  its  prosperity.  Between 
1856  and  1860,  the  value  of  imported  and  exported  cargoes  car- 
ried in  American  vessels  averaged  $475,000,000  a  year.  With 
the  outbreak  of  the  Civil  War,  this  trade  fell  away  to  $200,000,-' 
000  ani  under,  and  remains  at  about  that  figure  to-day.  The 
percentage  of  trade  carried  in  American  vessels  in  1856  was  75. 2; 
in  1891,  the  percentage  was  11.94.  There  was  a  large  increase 
in  the  coastwise  trade  from  1860  and  on, -which  led  to  the  build- 
ing of  schooners,  now  the  recognized  type  of  coastwise  ships. 
One  of  the  largest  schooners  ever  built  was  the  Governor  Ames, 
which  was  built  in  1888  in  Maine;  her  keel  is  265  feet  long,  the 
length  over  all  is  265;  beam  50  feet,  depth  20  feet,  tonnage 
1,800.  She  has  460  tons  of  Virginia  white  oak  in  her  framework  ; 
her  planking  is  six  inches  thick,  and  7£  inches  at  the  gunwales. 
She  has  four  masts  and  is  employed  in  trade  with  South  Ameri- 
can ports. 

Mississippi  River  Navigation  took  a  great  spurt  with  the 
advent  of  steam  navigation  (which  see),  although  several  sailing 
vessels  had  made  the  voyage  from  New  Orleans  to  Louisville, 
Kentucky,  in  from  sixteen  to  twenty  days.  Iron  ships  were  built 
after  1838,  in  which  year  the  Codorus,  an  iron  ship,  was  built  for 
the  Susquehanua  River  trade.  These  hulls  were  crude  in  shape, 


SHIP-BUILDING. 


359 


360  SHIP-BUILDING. 

and  the  effort  to  fashion  them  on  the  lines  of  wooden  hulls  was 
not  at  first  successful. 

Steam  Navigation. — The  first  successful  attempt  at  steam 
navigation  was  Robert  Fulton's  steamboat  Clermont,  which  in 
1807°  made  the  trip  from  New  York  to  Albany,  148  miles,  at  the 
rate  of  five  miles  an  hour,  and  returned  at  the  same  speed. 
Previously  several  Englishmen  and  Americans  had  experiments  I 
with  steam  as  a  means  of  propulsion.  In  1784  and  1786,  James 
Ramsey,  o£  Chester,  Pa.,  drove  a  boat  on  the  Potomac  four  miles 
an  hour  by  a  water  jet  forced  out  at  the  stern.  John  Fitch 
about  the  same  time  tried  to  propel  a  steamer  on  the  Delaware 
River  by  means  of  paddles  turned  by  cranks.  Fulton's  Steam- 
boat, however,  was  a  complete  success,  and  it  revolutionized  the 
river  and  ocean  navigation  of  the  world.  The  Clermont  was  138 
feet  in  length,  18  feet  beam,  7  feet  in  depth,  and  160  tons  bur- 
den. The  engine  had  a  steam  cylinder  24  inches  in  diameter 
and  a  stroke  of  4  feet.  Not  long  after,  Col.  John  Stevens,  of 
New  Jersey,  who  had  been  experimenting  with  steam  about  Ful- 
ton's time,  made  the  voyage  in  a  steam  side- wheeler,  called  the 
Phoenix,  from  New  York  to  the  Delaware  River.  This  was  the 
First  Ocean  Voyage  by  a  steam  vessel.  The  next  ocean  voy- 
age by  a  stenn  vessel  was  more  daring.  It  was  that  of  the 
Savannah,  Capt.  Moses  Rogers,  which  sailing  from  Savannah, 
Gra.,  on  May  24,  1819,  made  the  voyage  to  Liverpool,  arriving 
there  on  June  20,  having  used  both  steam  and  sails.  The  same 
ship  made  the  trip  from  St.  Petersburg  to  New  York  direct  in 
26  days.  The  First  Transatlantic  Line  of  steamships  was  the 
Cunard  line,  which  on  July  4,  1840,  sent  from  Liverpool  the 
steamship  Brittania,  1,350  tons,  and  thereafter  sent  steamers  reg- 
ularly. The  first  transatlantic  screw  steamer  was  the  Massachu- 
setts, Capt.  R.  B.  Forbes,  who  also  introduced  steam  vessels  into 
the  China  trade.  The  largest  steam  vessel  ever  constructed  was 
the  Great  Eastern,  which  was  680  feet  long,  83  feet  beam,  58 
feet  deep,  28  feet  draught,  and  2,400  tons  burden  ;  she  had  four 
paddles,  four  screw  engines,  and  had  a  speed  of  16£  statute  miles 
an  hour. 

Ocean  Steamships What  is  called  the  transatlantic  fleet 

of  steamships  consists  of  106  vessels,  sailing  regularly  to  and  from 
New  York  and  European  ports.  Some  of  them  sail  to  and  from 
Boston.  The  European  destination  of  31  of  these  steamships  is 
Liverpool;  of  19,  Glasgow;  of  17,  Hamburg,  via  Southampton; 
of  11,  Antwerp;  of  9,  Boulogne  and  Rotterdam;  of  10,  Bremen, 
via  Southampton  ;  of  6,  Havre ;  of  3,  Bordeaux.  Nearly  all  of 
these  steamships  are  owned  abroad.  Not  all  of  these  vessels 
carry  first-class  passengers,  but  all  of  them  carry  valuable  cargoes 


SHIP-BUILDING.  361 

of  merchandise.  There  are  many  more  steamers  which  are 
smaller  and  less  speedy ;  in  fact,  there  are  upwards  of  35  lines 
between  the  eastern  seaboard  of  the  United  States  and  European 
ports.  There  were  in  1891  416  steamships  sailing  from  Ameri- 
can ports  to  foreign  ports.  Their  tonnage  was  517,394,  their 
value  was  $42,000,000,  and  the  value  of  their  merchandise  was 
$1,402,500,000.  Great  Britain,  in  the  same  year,  had  6,403  steam 
vessels,  with  tonnage  of  8,235,854 ;  their  value  was  $550,000,000, 
and  the  value  of  their  merchandise  was  $3,476,500,000.  Ger- 
man}7 had  741  steam  vessels,  with  tonnage  of  928,911  ;  their  value 
was  $63,500,000,  and  that  of  their  merchandise  was  $1,624,000,- 
000.  France  had  526  steam  vessels,  whose  tonnage  was  809,598  ; 
their  value  was  $48,500,000,  and  their  merchandise  was  valued  at 
$1,471,000,000.  The  United  States  thus  stood  fourth  among  the 
nations  of  the  world.  The  centre  of  the  United  States  Ocean 
Carrying  Trade  is  New 
York,  where  steamers  leave 
not  only  for  the  ports  on  the 
regular  transatlantic  routes 
designated  above,  but  also  for 
Amsterdam,  Antigua,  the 
Azores,  Barbadoes,  Barcelona, 
Bermuda,  Bristol,  Eng., 
Buenos  Ayres,  Cardenas, 
Colon,  Copenhagen,  Deme- 
rara,  Dominica,  Genoa,  and 
Gibraltar,Gonaives,Grcytown, 
Guadeloupe,  Halifax,  Havana,  ^  rlying  jlb.  2>  jih.  3>  foro  9t  stay. 

Hong;     Koiio;      Jamaica,    Leg;-  sail;   4,  fore  course;   5,  fore  topsail;    6,  fore 
i  T     •*!      T        J  TIT    i  topgallant  sail ;  7,  fore  royal ;  8,  fore  skysail ; 

IlOrn,  Leitll,  London,    Malaga,  9,^  royal  studding-sail;  lO,  fore  topgallant 
Marseilles  MartinimiP  Matin     studding-sail;    11,    fore    topmast    studding- 
CS,^VJ          mque,lU          1-  gail.  12(femain  course;    13,  main  topsail;    14, 

zas,     MeSSina,    Naples,     New-  main  topgallant  sail;  15,  main  royal;  1C.  main 

.1         -pi  -nn          -r>  skysail;    17,    main     royal     studding-sail;    18, 

Castle,    l^ng.,    J^aia,    Jrernam-  m^in  topgallant  studding-sail;  19,  main  top- 

biico,   Port 
Janeiro 

de  Cuba,"  Shanghai/ St.  Crofx, spanker' 
St.  Domingo  City,  St.  Johns,  N.  F.,  Porto  liico,  and  St.  Kitts. 
Besides  these  lines,  most  of  which  carry  only  freight,  there  are 
many  others  running  to  the  ports  on  the  eastern  coast  of  the 
United  States,  and  one  to  San  Francisco  (the  Pacific  Mail  S.  S. 
Co.),  via  the  Isthmus  of  Panama.  From  Philadelphia  and  Balti- 
more two  lines  of  steamers,  chiefly  freighters,  run  to  foreign 
ports.  The  Pacific  Mail  Steamship  Company  was^  organized 
in  1847,  at  the  time  of  the  colonization  of  the  Pacific  States, 
when  it  despatched  one  of  its  first  vessels,  the  California,  from 


362  SHIP-BUILDING. 

New  York,  in  1848,  to  San  Francisco  by  way  of  Cape  Horn. 
This  extraordinary  performance,  in  those  early  days  of  steam 
navigation,  enabled  the  company  to  inaugurate  a  steamship 
service  between  Panama  and  San  Francisco.  The  route  thus 
opened  was  from  New  York  to  Colon  (Aspinwall),  and  thence 
across  the  Isthmus  to  Panama,  where  the  steamer  was  in  waiting 
to  run  up  the  Mexican  coast  to  California.  The  transpacific 
route  was  commenced  in  1867,  s^on  after  the  opening  of  the 
Pacific  Railroad,  and  is  now  worked  in  conjunction  with  an 
English  line,  the  Oriental  &  Occidental.  The  only  steamship 
company  which  carries  passengers  between  the  United  States  and 
South  American  ports,  and  which  flies  the  stars  and  stripes  at  the 
ship's  head,  i?  one  from  New  York  to  Rio  de  Janeiro,  which  stops 
at  St.  Thomas,  Barbadoes,  Para,  Maranham,  Pernambuco,  Bahia, 
and  Rio  de  Janeiro. 

The  largest  of  the  Fleet  of  Transatlantic  Steamers  have'a 
gross  tonnage  of  12,000.  These  are  the  Fftrst  Bismarck  and  the 
Nortnannia,  New  York  to  Hamburg.  The  City  of  Paris  and  the 
City  of  New  York,  New  York  to  Liverpool,  have  a  gross  tonnage 
of  10,499 ;  the  Augusta,  Victoria,  and  the  Columbia,  New  York  to 
Hamburg,  have  a  gross  tonnage  of  10,000  ;  the  Teutonic  and  the 
Majestic,  New  York  to  Liverpool,  have  a  gross  tonnage  of  9,685 
and  9,861  respectively.  The  latter  have  the  greatest  length,  582 
feet ;  their  breadth  is  57-J-  feet,  and  their  depth  is  39  feet.  The 
modern  steamship  nowadays  is  divided  into  upwards  of  twenty 
water-tight  compartments  separated  by  bulkheads,  which  encircle 
the  hull  of  the  ship,  as  it  were,  by  an  outer  shell.  In  the  bow  is 
a  collision  bulkhead  to  save  the  ship  in  the  event  of  her  running 
"  bow  on "  against  any  obstacle.  The  effect  of  this  system  of 
bulkhead-protected  compartments  is  to  isolate  every  part  of  the 
ship,  so  that  the  sea,  when  once  it  breaks  through,  may  be 
prevented  from  flooding  the  entire  vessel.  All  first-class  steamers 
have  also  twin  screws,  each  worked  by  a  separate  engine.  If 
one  screw  becomes  disabled,  the  steamer  is  propelled  by  the 
other. 

Ocean  Disasters In   the  forty  years  ending  1880,   144 

ocean  steamers  were  lost  at  sea ;  not  all  of  these,  however,  were 
passenger  steamers.  Among  the  more  famous  losses  were  the 
City  of  Glasgow,  in  1854,  which  was  never  heard  of,  having  480 
persons  on  board;  the  steamship  Arctic,  which  collided  in  1854 
with  the  steamer  Vesta  in  a  fog  off  Cape  Race,  and  sunk  with 
562  souls  on  board;  the  steamer  Pacific,  lost  in  1856,  with  186 
persons;  the  Austria  in  1858,  which  was  burned  at  sea,  with  a 
loss  of  471  lives;  the  City  of  Boston,  lost  at  sea  in  1870,  with 
200  persons  on  board;  the  Atlantic,  lost  in  1873  with  560 


SHIP-BUtLDING. 


363 


souls ;  tho  Schiller,  a  year  or  two  later,  with  200  persons ;  "the 
Deutschland,  with  150  persons  ;  the  Pomerania,  with  50  lives ; 
the  Cimbria,  with  84  lives ;  and  the  Yille  du  Havre,  with  230 
persons.  This  is  the  last  of  the  calamities  suffered  by  ocean 
steamships  in  the  transatlantic  service,  although  many  have  since 
then  been  sunk,  without  loss  of  life.  Ice  and  icebergs  are  most 
dangerous  obstacles  to  ocean  navigation,  although  fog  is  generally 
more  dangerous  to  life.  Between  1882  and  1890,  the  records  of 
the  Ilydrographic  office  show  that  36  steamers  were  injured  more 
or  less  by  ice  in  the  North  Atlantic  Ocean. 

Speed     of    Ocean     Steamships. —  The    construction    of 
powerful   machinery  in  recent  years  has  made   it   possible   for 


*fO3^^3f5.SWl!B?ap    ~~i-Jiu™ai/ 


A     FULL     UIGGED    SHIP. 


steamships  to  make  the  run  from  Sandy  Hook  to  Queenstown,^ 
2,800  miles,  inside  of  six  days.  The  Teutonic  holds  the  record, 
having  made  the  distance,  in  August,  1891,  in  five  days,  six  hours, 
and  thirty-one  minutes.  The  City  of  Paris  is  second  with  a 
record  of  five  days,  nineteen  hours,  and  eighteen  minutes,  in 
August,  1889. 

Navigation  on  the  Great  Lakes.— A  most  important  and 
lucrative  source  of  the  shipping  commerce  of  the  United  States 
is  that  of  the  Great  Lakes.  This  magnificent  highway  is  the 


364 


SHIP-BUILDING. 


greatest  inland  water  route  of  the  world,  its  flotilla  of  vessels  and 
barges  transporting  annually  millions  of  tons  of  the  products  of 
the  richly  productive  country  in  which  it  is  situated.  The 
cereals,  the  beef,  the  lumber,  the  copper,  the  salt,  the  iron  ore, 
the  flour  and  the  coal,  of  the  great  Northwest,  these  are  the 
important  products  which  find  a  natural  and  easy  outlet  to  the 
marts  of  trade  in  the  East  and  in  Europe.  The  Cargo  Ton- 
nage of  the  Great  Lak^s  since  1880  has  nearly  doubled.  In  1890, 
it  amounted  to  over  30,299,000  tons,  chiefly  in  grain  and  mill  pro- 
ducts, lumber,  coal,  and  iron  ore,  and  was  valued  at  $350,000,000. 
This  is  greater  than  the  cargo  tonnage  of  New  York  by  over  100 
per  cent.,  and  greater  by  25  per  cent,  than  the  tonnage  of  all 
the  seaports  in  the  United  States,  surpassing  the  tonnage  of 

London    and    Liverpool   com- 
bined, by  over  3,000,000  tons. 


CIHRIN  ELEVATORS  If  ZflKET 

By  the  census  of  1890,  the  vessels  "^smppnq,  cHicnqo.  I 
engaged  in  carrying  this  enor- 
mous cargo  numbered  2,784,  of  which  307  were  propellers  carry- 
ing both  passengers  and  freight,  433  propellers  carrying  freight 
only,  939  schooners,  and  301  barges ;  all  others  804,  a  total  ship 
tonnage  of  924,472.  The  lake  ports  ranked  as  follows  in  the 
number  of  vessels  engaged  in  the  lake  traffic:  Chicago,  339;  Port 
Huron,  293  ;  Detroit,  275  ;  Milwaukee,  259  ;  Grand  Haven,  225  ; 
Cleveland,  219 ;  Buffalo,  204;  all  other  parts,  870.  The  Cost 
Per  Ton  per  mile  of  carrying  freight  through  the  800  miles  of 
the  lake  system  was  in  1889  but  one  and  one  half  mills.  Ha^ 
the  same  cargo  been  carried  by  railroad  it  would  have  cost  over 
$140,000,000  ;  by  the  lakes  the  cost  was  only  $23,000,000.  An 


SHIP-BUILDING. 


365 


interesting  feature  of  the  lake  traffic  is  the  introduction  of  the 
"whaleback"  steamer,  so-called  on  account  of  its  rounded  deck. 
The  deck  is  free  from  the  masts  and  rigging  ordinarily  found  on 
ocean  steamships.  The  "  whaleback "  is  designed  especially  for 
carrying  grain.  Within  a  year,  the  experiment  has  been  tried 
successfully  of  carrying  grain  in  whalebacks  direct  to  European 
ports,  via  the  St.  Lawrence  River,  the  mouth  of  which  is  over 
1,200  miles  from  Chicago. 

American  Carrying  Trade. —  The  immense  export  and 
import  trade  between  this  country  and  the  nations  of  the  earth,  is 
carried  on,  excepting  11.94  per  cent,  of  it,  in  vessels  owned  and 
manned  by  foreigners.  What  is  called  the  decline  in  the  carry- 
ing trade  has  recently  become  a  subject  of  serious  consideration 
by  the  statesmen  of  the  nation,  and  the  restoration  of  American 
shipping  to  its  pristine  glory  will  henceforth  be  their  earnest  en. 
deavor.  To  this  end, 
the  Fifty-first  Con- 
gress passed  the 
Postal  Subsidy 
Bill,  which  empowers 
the  Postmaster-Gen- 
eral to  make  contracts 
with  American  own- 
ers of  American-built 
and  American  manned 
steamships  for  carry- 
ing the  mails  between 
the  United  States  and 
foreign  ports  (Canada 
excluded).  The  ves- 
sels are  to  be  con- 
structed after  the 
latest  and  most  ap- 
proved types,  divided 
into  four  classes  as  follows  :  First  class,  iron  or  steel  20-knot  vessels 
of  not  less  than  8,000  tons.  (The  American-English  mails  are  to  be 
carried  on  this  class  entirely.)  Second  class,  iron  or  steel  14-knot 
vessels  of  not  less  than  2,500  tons ;  fourth  class,  iron,  steel,  or 
wooden  12-knot  vessels  of  not  less  than  1,500  tons.  Vessels  of  the 
first,  second,  and  third  classes  are  to  be  constructed  with  particular 
reference  to  prompt  and  economical  conversion  into  auxiliary 
naval  cruisers  on  plans  approved  by  the  Secretary  of  the  Navy, 
strong  enough  to  carry  six-inch  rifles  and  of  the  highest  known 
maritime  rating.  The  compensation  to  be  paid  is  as  follows: 
First-class,  $4  "per  mile  ;  second  class,  $2  per  mile  by  the  shortest 


DKY-DOCKED. 


366  SIGNAL    SERVICE    OF    TIIE    UNITED    STATES. 

practicable  route  for  each  outward  voyage  ;  third  class,  $1  per  mile; 
fourth  class,  66|  cents  per  mile  for  the  number  of  miles  required 
by  the  Post-Office  Department  to  be  traveled  on  each  outward 
voyage. 

In  May,  1892,  a  bill  which  permits  foreign-built  vessels  to 
receive  an  American  registry  upon  application  of  their  owners, 
became  a  law  and  under  it  the  City  of  Paris  and  the  City  of  New 
York  were  so  registered.  Hereafter  they  will  fly  the  American 
flag  instead  of  the  English  flag,  and  will  receive  the  subsidy 
provided  by  the  Postal  Subsidy  Act. 

It  was  by  the  subsidy  system  that  England  built  up  her  ex- 
tensive system  of  ocean  steamships,  many  of  which  have  made 
their  profits  solely  from  the  American  carrying  trade.  While 
this  country  has  made  marvellous  strides  forward  in  the  develop- 
ment of  its  natural  resources,  that  of  its  shipping  has  been 
neglected.  Capital  has  been  put  into  almost  anything  but  ships, 
but  the  past  three  years  show  signs  of  a  revivification  of  the  ship- 
building industry.  The  number  of  vessels  built  in  the  United 
States  in  1888  was  1,014,  of  which  430  were  steamers;  in  1889, 
the  number  was  1,077,  of  which  440  were  steam ;  in  1890,  1,051, 
of  which  410  were  steam ;  in  1891,  1,384,  of  which  488  were 
steam.  The  Tonnage  of  our  merchant  navy  in  1891  was 
4,684,759,  a  steady  but  small  increase  since  1870.  Great  Britain's 
merchant  tonnage  in  1891  was  11,928,624.  Germany's  was 
1,678,446,  and  Norway,  the  fourth  in  rank,  was  1,665,477.  The 
number  of  United  States  vessels  in  the  foreign  trade  in  1891  was 
1,516  ;  in -the  coastwise  trade,  20,829. 

Shoe-String  District.     (See  Gerrymander.) 
Signal  Service,  The  United  States. 

Weather  Conditions.  Rainfall. 

Cold  Waves.  Crop  Bulletin 

Frosts  and  Floods.  Storm  Signals. 

This  department  of  the  United  States  service  was  established 
by  the  Act  of  Congress  of  February  9,  1870,  and  its  care  and 
supervision  placed  in  the  hands  of  Brig.-Gen.  Albert  J.  Meyer, 
the  chief  signal  officer  of  the  United  States  Army.  Hence  the 
name  —  Signal  Service  —  by  which  this  department  has  been 
known  until  recently.  It  was  strictly  military  in  its  organization. 
On  account  of  the  peculiar  value  to  agriculture  of  its  weather 
indications,  the  service  was  on  July  1,  1891,  transferred  to  the 
Department  of  Agriculture.  Its  Duties,  as  set  forth  in  the  act 
establishing  the  service,  were  "  to  take  and  record  meteorological 
observations,  and  to  report,  and  give  notice,  by  electric  tele- 


SIGNAL    SERVICE    OF    THE    UNITED    STATES.  367 

graph,  of  the  approach  and  the  force  of  storms,  for  the  benefit 
of  commerce  and  agriculture."  The  elements  of  its  observations 
are:  Temperature  and  pressure  of  the  air;  the  percentage  of 
moisture  or  relative  humidity ;  the  temperature  of  the  dewpoint ; 
direction,  force,  and  velocity  of  the  wind ;  kinds  and  amount  of 
clouds ;  amount  of  precipitation  —  rain  or  melted  snow  —  in 
inches  and  hundredths  ;  character  of  the  sky,  and  the  state  of  the 
weather. 

In  addition  to  these  a  record  of  all  Special  Phenomena, 
such  as  aurorae,  halos,  thunderstorms,  tornadoes,  waterspouts, 
earthquakes,  etc.  These  data  are  telegraphed  to  Washington  — 
the  central  station  —  at  stated  times,  and  from  there  transmitted 
in  the  same  manner  to  offices  located  at  the  commercial  centres 
of  the  entire  country,  from  which  the  information  is  disseminated 
through  the  daily  papers,  by  the  public  display  of  bulletins  and 
other  methods. 

Thus  far  the  labors  of  this  service  were  chiefly  in  the  interest 
of  agriculture.  The  next  step  was  the  display  of  Storm  Signals 
at  stations  on  the  seaboard,  the  Gulf,  and  the  Great  Lakes,  by 
means  of  large  flags  by  day  and  colored  lights  by  night.  At  first, 
twenty  such  stations  were  established ;  now  a  chain  of  them  ex- 
tends from  the  Rio  Grande,  Gulf  of  Mexico,  to  Eastport,  Me., 
throughout  the  great  lakes  and  along  the  Pacific  coast,  all  in  the 
interest  of  commerce.  There  is  a  department  for  the  study  of 
Cold  Waves,  of  the  approach  of  which  warnings  can  be  given 
from  twelve  to  thirty-six  hours  ahead  for  the  benefit  of  growers 
and  shippers  of  fruits  and  other  perishable  goods ;  and  also  fore- 
casts or  daily  weather  from  thirty-six  to  forty  hours  in  advance. 
The  vast  territory  of  the  United  States  has  been  divided  into 
districts,  and,  by  making  a  special  study  of  each,  the  "  Forecasts  " 
are  made  more  definite  and  exact  for  each  of  them,  thus  more 
effectually  promoting  the  interests  of  the  farmers  therein.  In  the 
cotton  belt  a  special  system  of  Rainfall  and  Temperature  obser- 
vations has  been  adopted  for  the  benefit  of  the  planter  and  dealer. 
So  in  the  great  strawberry-growing  region  of  New  Jersey  and 
adjacent  territory,  foreknowledge  of  weather  and  temperature 
is  of  the  highest  importance,  and  is  watched  as  closely  by  dealers 
elsewhere  as  by  the  Jersey  culturists.  The  Flood-Warnings 
of  the  great  valleys  of  the  Mississippi  and  tributaries  have  been  of 
incalculable  value. 

The  Flags  adopted  by  the  Signal  Service  are  five  in  number, 
and  the  forms  and  dimensions  are  indicated  below  :  — 

Number  1,  white  flag,  six  feet  square,  indicates  clear  or  fair 
weather.  Number  2,  blue  flag,  six  feet  square,  indicates  rain  or 
snow.  Number  3,  white  and^blue  flag,  six  feet  square,  indicates 


368 


SIGNAL    SERVICE    OF    THE    UNITED    STATES. 


local  rains  or  showers.  Number  4,  black  triangular  flag,  four 
feet  at  the  base  and  six  feet  in  length,  always  refers  to  tempera- 
ture ;  when  placed  above  numbers  1,  2,  or  3,  it  indicates  warmer 
weather;  when  placed  below  numbers  1,  2,  or  3  it  indicates 
colder  weather  ;  when  not  displayed,  the  indications  are  that  the 
temperature  will  remain  stationary,  or  that  the  change  in  temper- 
ature will  not  vary  more  than  four  degrees  from  the  temperature 
of  the  same  hour  of  the  preceding  day.  Number  5,  white  flag, 
six  feet  square,  with  black  square  in  centre,  indicates  the  approach 

[         \iftfjfe   ^^ma/up.    WMMffed.,  F^WMycVotv  WB£i&iQ.t:K 


temp  e  r  a  t  u  r  e  . 
This  signal  is 
usually  ordered 
at  least  twenty- 
four  hours  in  ad- 
vance of  the  cold 
wave.  When 

Number  5  is  displayed,  Number  4  is  always  omitted. 

When  displayed   on    poles   the    signals   should  be  arranged  to 

read   downward ;  when    displayed   from   horizontal    supports    a 

small  streamer  should  be  attached   to   indicate   the  point   from 

which  the  signals  are  to  be  read. 

INTERPRETATION    OF    DISPLAYS. 

No.  1,  alone,  fair  weather,  stationary  temperature. 

No.  2,  alone,  rain  or  snow,  stationary  temperature. 

No.  3,  alone,  local  rain,  stationary  temperature. 

No.  1,  with  No.  4  above  it,  fair  weather,  warmer. 

No.  1,  with  No.  4  below  it,  fair  weather,  colder. 

No.  2,  with  No.  4  above  it,  warmer  weather,  rain  or  snow. 

No.  2,  with  No.  4  below  it,  colder  weather,  rain  or  snow. 

No.  3,  with  No.  4  above  it,  warmer  weather  with  local  rains. 

No.  3,  with  No.  4  below  it,  colder  weather  with  local  rains. 

No.  1,  with  No.  5  above  it,  fair  weather,  cold  wave. 

No.  2,  with  No.  5  above  it,  wet  weather,  cold  wave. 

Another  important  service  rendered  by  the  Bureau  is  the 
issuing  at  intervals  of  bulletins  regarding  the  outlook  for  the 
crops  in  the  great  crop-belts.  Having  experienced  observers  in 
the  immediate  vicinity,  its  information  is  generally  authentic  and 
is  of  much  value  to  the  business  interests  of  the  country. 

The  Signal  Service  also  issues  a  series  of  Storm,  Caution- 
ary, and  Wind  Signals,  which  are  chiefly  for  the  informa- 
tion of  steamship  companies,  masters  of  sailing  vessels,  and  man- 


SIGNAL    SERVICE    OP    THE    UNITED    STATES. 


369 


ners  in  general.     The  flags  and  the  signals  they  are   intended   to 
carry  are  as  follows: 

The  square  flags  indicate  the  character  of  the  storm,  whether 
moderate  or  severe.  A  yellow  flag  with  a 
white  centre  indicates  that  the  winds  expected 
will  not  be  so  severe,  but  well-found,  sea- 
worthy vessels  can  meet  them  without  danger. 
A  red  flag  with  a  black  centre  indicates  that 
the  storm  is  expected  to  be  of  marked  vio- 
lence. The  pennants  displayed  with  the  flags 
indicate  the  direction  of  the  wind :  red, 
easterly  (from  northeast  to  south)  ;  white, 
westerly  (from  southwest  to  north).  The 
pennant  above  the  flag  indicates  that  the 
wind  is  expected  to  blow  from  the  northerly 
quadrant ;  below,  from  the  southerly  quad- 
rant. By  night  a  red  light  will  indicate 
easterly  winds,  and  a  white  light  above  a  red 
light  westerly  winds.  The  "  Information 
Signal "  consists  of  a  yellow  pennant  of  the 
same  dimensions  as  the  red  and  the  white 
pennants  (direction  signals),  and  when  dis- 
played indicates  that  the  local  observer  has 
received  information  from  the  central  office  of 
a  storm  covering  a  limited  area,  dangerous 
only  for  vessels  about  to  sail  to  certain 
points.  The  signal  will  serve  as  a  notifica- 
tion to  shipmasters  to  apply  for  information  to  the  local  ob- 
server. 

Silver  Greys.     (See  Political  Parties.) 

Silver,  Production  of.     (See  Mining.) 

Single  Tax  Party.     (See  Political  Parties.) 

Sir  Veto.     (See  Presidents  of  the  United  States.) 

Sitting  Bull.     (See  Nicknames  of  Famous  Americans.) 

Slang  of  Politics. —  The  vocabulary  of  American  politics 
contains  a  motley  collection  of  curious  words  and  phrases,  many  of 
which,  while  they  are  vulgar,  yet  are  most  expressive.  As  a  rule, 
they  have  originated  with  professional  politicians  and  the  news- 
papers. Some  of  the  more  expressive,  besides  other  words  and 
phrases  of  a  political  origin  which  have  passed  into  common  use, 
are  grouped  below  :  — 

Another  County  Heard  From. —  When  a  State  or  Na- 
tional election  is  in  doubt,  it  frequently  happens- that  the  votes  of 


370  SLANG   OF   POLITICS. 

countieg  are  necessary  to  establish  the  result.  The  phrase  wa« 
heard  first  in  the  campaign  of  1876,  when  returns  arrived  from 
some  of  the  doubtful  States  very  slowly. 

Bandanna. — AJlen  G.  Thurman,  Democratic  candidate  for 
Vice -President  in  1888,  made  use  of  a  red  bandanna  handker- 
chief. In  the  campaign  the  bandanna  became  a  badge  of 
Democracy. 

Bar'l,  To  Tap  the. — A  phrase  applied  to  rich  candidates  for 
office  who  are  popularly  believed  to  be  possessed  of  a  "  barrel  " 
of  money  for  campaign  use. 

Bee  in  His  Bonnet. — A  popular  expression  to  indicate  a 
man's  desire  to  secure  public  office,  but  usually  applied  to  would- 
be  candidates  for  President. 

Billion  Congress. —  Applied  to  the  Fifty- First  Congress 
because  of  its  appropriations,  which  in  the  rough  aggregated  a 
billion  dollars. 

Elaine  and  Business. —  A  battle-cry  of  the  adherents  of 
Secretary  Elaine,  when  in  1891  it  appeared  that  he  might  again 
stand  for  the  Presidency ;  it  was  hoped  that  he  would,  if  nom- 
inated, make  a  campaign  on  the  issues  of  reciprocity  and  the 
extension  of  foreign  trade  generally. 

Bleeding  Kansas. — An  epithet  of  ridicule  for  Kansas, 
originating  from  the  bloody  strife  over  the  Kansas-Nebraska  bill 
in  1854.  Since  then,  orators  in  Congress  have  used  the  phrase 
frequently. 

Blocks  of  Five.  —  In  the  Harrison-Cleveland  campaign  of 
1888,  it  was  brought  to  light  that  the  Republican  National  Com- 
mittee, through  its  treasurer,  Col.  W.  W.  Dudley,  gave  instruc- 
tions to  secure  the  "  floater  "  vote  in  Indiana  in  "  blocks  of  five  " 
men  at  a  time.  The  campaign  in  that  State  was  fought  so  fiercely 
that  every. cross-roads  was  officered  by  "  strikers  "  of  both  parties, 
each  instructed  to  see  that  a  certain  designated  number  of  men 
should  vote. 

Bloody  Chasm,  To  Bridge  the An  oratorical  expres- 
sion intended  to  convey  the  idea  of  wiping  out  the  animosities 
growing  out  of  the  Civil  War. 

Bloody  Shirt,  To  Wave  the. —  Certain  Republican  ora- 
tors, in  Congress  and  out  of  it,  habitually  favored  a  rigorous 
policy  of  reconstruction  in  order  to  whip  into  line  the  rebellious 
States,  in  the  years  immediately  following  the  Civil  War.  Gov- 
ernor Morton,  of  Indiana,  is  credited  with  having  originated  the 
phrase.  Nowadays,  whenever  an  orator  is  especially  severe 
toward  the  South,  the  Democrats  taunt  him  with  "  waving  the 
bloody  shirt,"  which  in  later  years  has  come  to  be  regarded  in 
the  light  of  a  dead  issue. 


SLANG    OF   POLITICS.  371 

Bolter.  —  A  bolter  is  a  man  who  refuses  to  support  the  can- 
didate or  the  policy  of  a  party.  Under  such  circumstances,  he 
bolts  the  party.  This  does  not  mean  necessarily  that  he  will  not 
return  when  his  disaffection  has  been  mollified.  * 

Boodle. — Among  politicians  this  means  money  for  political 
use,  generally  for  purposes  of  corruption.  The  arrest  of  the  so- 
called  "  boodle "  aldermen  in  New  York,  who  were  accused  of 
having  sold  public  franchises  for  money,  gave  the  word  a  promi- 
nent position  in  the  vocabulary  of  American  slang. 

Boom,  Boomer.  —  A  boom  is  a  well-organized  movement, 
political  or  otherwise.  Politicians  have  "booms,"  and  so  do 
towns,  cities,  commercial  enterprises,  etc.  The  "boom"  prom- 
ises great  success  cr  prosperity,  and  a  "  boomer "  is  an  active 
agent  in  helping  on  the  "boom."  "Elaine  boomers"  were  men 
who  saw  that  the  Plumed  Knight's  political  welfare  was  not  lost 
sight  of,  and  who  "boomed"  him  on  every  possible  occasion. 

Boss.  —  In  politics  a  boss  is  the  party  or  faction  leader.  He 
holds  indisputable  power ;  any  who  refuse  to  yield  to  him,  or  who 
question  his  autonomy,  are  subject  to  political  death.  In  the 
large  cities  the  boss  wields  tremendous  influence  by  virtue  of  the 
large  patronage  in  the  way  of  offices  at  his  disposal.  Rarely  is 
he  himself  found  in  office,  but  he  is  the  power  behind  the  throne. 
Frequently  the  important  officials  of  a  great  city  are  merely  his 
henchmen,  put  in  office  for  his  personal  profit.  The  chief  of 
Tammany  Hall,  in  New  York,  always  receives  the  title  of  Boss. 
The  more  famous  Bosses  have  been  Boss  Tweed  and  Boss  Kelly ; 
Richard  Croker,  who  is  the  inspiring  genius  of  Tammany  at  the 
present  time,  wears  the  title  to-day.  Ward  bosses  are  politicians 
who  wield  an  influence  which  is  confined  to  one  ward  of  a  city. 
This  they  are  sometimes  spoken  of  as  "  carrying  in  their  vest 
pocket." 

Boys,  The. — "Heelers,"  or  the  hangers-on  of  a  candidate 
who  expect  him  to  do  the  right  thing  in  the  way  of  entertain- 
ment after  election,  in  return  for  services  in  his  behalf  on  election 
day.  They  are  so  numerous,  and  so  efficient  in  the  peculiar  sort 
of  work  they  have  to  do  that  no  discreet  politician  will  do  other- 
wise than  keep  himself  "  solid  with  the  boys." 

Ceesarism. — Used  in  the  "boom"  fora  third  term  for  ex- 
President  Grant.  It  implied  the  notion  that  the  supporters  of 
Grant  wanted  to  make  a  Cresar  of  him,  that  is,  a  despot. 

Campaign  of  Education. —  This  phrase  arose  from  the 
determination  of  the  Democracy  after  the  defeat  of  Cleveland  on 
the  tariff  issue  in  1888,  which  it  was  claimed  was  due  to  the 
popular  ignorance  of  the  principles  and  operation  of  the  tariff 
system,  to  so  educate  the  voters  that  the  cause  of  tariff  reform 


372  SLANG   OP   POLITICS. 

would  ultimately  be  victorious.     They  announced  their  intention 
to  begin  a  "campaign  of  education." 

Glean  Sweep. — This  refers  either  to  an  overwhelming  vic- 
tory by  a  party*  or  to  the  wholesale  discharge  from  office  of  gov- 
ernment employees. 

Colonization. — It  has  been  charged  repeatedly  in  New 
York  City  that  the  Democratic  managers,  principally  those  of 
Tammany,  have  increased  their  majorities  in  the  down-town 
wards  by  "  colonizing"  these  wards,  a  short  time  before  election, 
with  voters  imported  from  the  outside,  and  paid  to  vote  the 
Democratic  ticket.  The  practice  is  known  as  colonization. 

Count  Out,  To. — When  a  candidate  has  actually  received  a 
majority  of  the  votes  in  an  election,  but  in  counting  the  votes, 
enough  of  them  are  thrown  out  for  one  reason  or  another,  the 
candidate  is  said  to  have  been  counted  out. 

Dark  Horse. — A  dark  horse  is  a  candidate  who  in  the  early 
ballots  at  political  conventions  shows  little  strength,  but  who 
ultimately  gets  the  nomination.  Garfield  was  a  dark  horse,  and 
so  was  Benjamin  Harrison. 

Democratic  Rooster. —  The  rooster  has  been  an  emblem  of 
Democratic  success  since  1842.  At  that  time  a  man  by  the  name 
of  Chapman  was  editor  of  the  Indianapolis  Sentinel,  a  Demo- 
cratic sheet.  The  result  of  a  local  election  being  in  doubt,  the 
editor  of  a  rival  organ  accused  Chapman  of  "  crowing  "  before 
he  was  justified  in  it,  and  in  a  headline  in  his  paper  one  morning, 
used  the  expression,  "  Crow,  Chapman,  Crow ! "  In  his  next 
issue,  the  election  having  resulted  in  victory  for  the  Democrats, 
Chapman  used  the  headline,  "  We  Crow,"  accompanied  by  the 
picture  of  a  rooster  in  the  act  of  crowing. 

Drys. —  The  name  given  to  those  who  vote  to  prohibit  the 
sale  of  liquor,  in  town,  cities,  or  State  elections.  The  word  was 
first  extensively  used  in  Georgia.  (See  Wets.) 

Dudes  and  Pharisees.  —  Synonymous  with  Mugwumps, 
and  applied  to  the  Republicans,  commonly  aristocrats,  who 
"bolted"  Elaine  in  1884.  "  Pharisees  "  indicates  that  spirit  actu- 
ating them  in  their  principles  to  which  the  Republican  and  part 
of  the  Democratic  press  referred  to  as  a  "  holier  than  thou  "  spirit. 
The  phrase  sometimes  is  "  dudes,  Pharisees,  and  hypocrites." 

Fire- Eater.  — A  bitter  partisan,  usually  a  Southerner,  but 
used  by  either  party  of  members  of  the  other. 

Floaters.  —  This  is  a  political  designation  for  doubtful,  often 
disreputable  voters  who  offer  their  votes  to  the  highest  bidder. 
In  New  York  and  other  doubtful  States,  the  "  floater "  vote  re- 
ceives careful  attention  from  the  managers  of  the  campaign,  who 


SLANG    OP    POLITICS. 


374  SLANG    OF    POLITICS. 

appreciate  the  fact  that  several  hundred  "  floater  "  votes  may  win 
the  day. 

G.  O.  P. Initials  for  "Grand  Old  Party,"  used  by  Repub- 
lican orators,  but  afterwards  ridiculed  by  the  Democrats,  and 
seldom  heard  now  except  in  derision. 

Innocuous  Desuetude. — A  phrase  used  by  President  Cleve- 
land in  J886,  in  a  message  to  Congress  regarding  removals  from 
office.  The  words  referred  to  certain  laws  which  were  no  longer 
observed.  The  novelty  of  the  words  far  more  than  their  appli- 
cation gave  the  phrase  a  wide  currency. 

Ins  and  Outs. — A  slang  political  term  for  office-holders  and 
their  would-be  successors. 

Jeffersonian  Simplicity. — Hatred  of  all  display  in  gov- 
ernmental conduct.  Jefferson  rode  to  the  Capitol  on  horseback, 
abolished  Presidential  levees,  preferred  to  be  addressed  as  Mis- 
ter, and  refused  to  wear  knee-breeches  and  silver  buckles. 
"Jefferson  Simplicity  "  is  a  favorite  phrase  with  Democrats, 
as  being  expressive  of  superior  political  instincts.  A  Jeffersonian 
Democrat  is  a  man  who  regards  Jefferson's  democracy  as  ideal. 
Jingoism. —  A  word  to  designate  a  policy  of  national  bluster. 
It  was  used  with  reference  to  Secretary  Elaine's  South  American 
policy. 

Junket. —  When  politicians  make  a  journey,  or  otherwise 
entertain  themselves  at  the  public  expense,  they  are  said  to  go  on 
a  "  j  unket."  The  word  carries  with  it  the  suggestion  of  cham- 
pagne and  cigars,  parlor  cars  and  hacks,  and  other  indispensables 
of  politicians  when  serving  the  people. 

Kicker. —  In  politics,  a  kicker  is  a  bolter,  or  one  who  while 
remiining  loyal  is  yet  only  passively  so. 

Kid  Glove  Politicians. —  The  "better  element"  of  politi- 
cal leadership,  usually  men  of  wealth  and  social  position  who 
enter  the  political  arena  from  motives  of  patriotism  and  with  the 
purpose  of  purifying  a  supposedly  corrupt  government.  The 
Mugwumps  have  often  been  called  kid-glove  politicians,"  but  a 
kid-glove  politician  is  not  always  a  Mugwump. 

Kindergarten  Politics. —  A  phrase  used  by  "  machine " 
or  professional  politicians  in  speaking  of  the  political  methods  of 
inexperienced  leaders.  It  implies  a  certain  superiority  on  the 
part  of  the  "  machine  "  men,  due  to  their  longer  and  more  intimate 
connection  with  the  conduct  of  campaigns,  and  a  derisive  con- 
tempt for  the  efforts  of  the  novitiates,  who  usually  follow  their 
own  intuitions,  irrespective  of  what  has  been  done  before. 

Knifing.—  This  is  a  form  of  political  treachery.  A  politician 
who  knifes  the  candidate  of  his  party  does  it  by  marshalling  his 
men  on  the  eve  of  the  election,  and  instructing  them  to  pass 


SLANG    OF   POLITICS.  375 

along  the  word  to  vote  for  the  opposing  candidate.  The  knifing 
does  not  appear  to  have  been  done  until  the  votes  are  counted, 
and  an  unexpected  falling-off  from  one  candidate  and  an  equally 
large  gain  by  the  other  are  found.  The  charge  has  always  been 
made  that  Tammany  knifed  Cleveland  in  1888. 

Log  Rolling. —  This  is  the  term  for  the  combination  of 
legislators  who  have  not  sufficient  strength  to  carry  their  measure 
through  unaided,  and  who  combine  with  another  set  of  men  who 
are  harassed  by  a  like  predicament.  The  phrase  is  taken  from 
the  cutting  of  timber. 

Mending  Fences. — This  term  refers  to  a  politician's  manoeu- 
vres in  his  own  interest.  When  Congressmen  are  absent  from 
Washington,  it  frequently  turns  out  that  they  are  at  home 
"  mending  fences."  The  phrase  originated  with  the  brother-in-law 
of  Senator  Sherman,  who  was  at  work  repairing  some  fences  on 
his  farm.  At  the  time  the  Senator  was  a  prominent  candidate 
for  the  Presidential  nomination.  To  a  reporter  who  asked  if  he 
might  see  the  Senator,  the  reply  was  made  by  the  Senator's 
brother-in-law,  that  he  was  about  the  farm  "  mending  fences." 
The  phrase  was  uttered  in  perfect  innocence  of  any  political 
significance,  but  when  it  got  into  print  it  became  a  by- word  of 
politics. 

Nepotism, — A  word  applied  to  the  appointments  to  office 
under  the  government  of  relatives  of  the  family  of  President 
Benjamin  Harrison,  the  number  of  which  was  so  large  as  to  call 
forth  the  criticisms  of  the  Democratic  press. 

Offensive  Partisans.  —  This  phrase  and  also  "offensive 
partisanship"  have  come  into  common  use  since  the  first  was 
coined  by  Postmaster-General  Vilas,  in  a  letter  regarding  the  re- 
moval of  postmasters  for  political  reasons. 

On  the  Fence.  —  In  its  political  signification  it  means  neu- 
trality toward  opposing  parties  or  principles.  When  a  politician 
is  afraid  to  commit  himself  on  a  political  question  he  sits  "  on  the 
fence." 

One  Man  Power.  — This  is  a  phrase  indicating  the  almost 
imperial  authority  of  a  public  officer.  It  developed  in  the  early 
days  of  the  Union,  when  there  was  a  jealousy  of  the  power  vested 
in  governors,  mayors,  and  other  public  officials. 

Pair  Off.  --  When  two  members  of  a  legislative  body  agree 
to  refrain  from  voting,  the}*-  are  said  to  pair  off. 

Pasters.  —  These  are  narrow  slips  of  paper  having  the  printed 
names  of  candidates  other  than  the  regular  nominees,  which  are 
distributed  by  politicians  so  that  voters  may  rearrange  their  bal- 
lots, if  necessary. 

Peanut   Politics.  — Any  political  act  which  is  apparently  of 


376  SLANG    OF    POLITICS. 

trivial  importance,  and  is  done  purely  for  polities'  sake,  is  char- 
acterized as  peanut  politics. 

Pipe-Laying.  — In  political  parlance  this  means  the  procur- 
ing of  votes  fraudulently,  or  by  any  other  illegal  means.  It  is 
said  to  have  originated  in  New  York  City  about  1848,  when  the 
Croton  water-pipes  were  being  laid. 

Practical  Politics.  —  Practical  politics  includes  the  inside 
workings  of  party  managements,  not  only  those  which  are  legiti- 
mate, but  more  especially  those  which  are  corrupt. 

Pull. — The  man  with  a  pull,  in  politics,  is  he  who  by  some 
means,  not  always  manifested,  has  special  influence  with  the  gov- 
ernment, or  who  has  influence  of  another  kind  which  brings  Lim 
prominently  before  the  public. 

Railroading. — When  a  bill  is  hurried  through  a  legislative 
assembly,  it  is  said  to  have  been  railroaded  through.  The  impli- 
cation is  that  corrupt  methods  have  been  used. 

Rainbow-Chafeers. —  This  phrase  was  applied  first  by  the 
New  York  Sun,  and  afterwards  by  other  newspapers,  in  the 
Presidential  campaign  of  1884,  to  Chairman  Calvin  S.  Brice,  of 
the  Democratic  National  Committee,  and  to  other  prominent 
Democrats  who  sought  to  carry  the  country  for  Cleveland  on  the 
tariff  issue. 

Rider. —  A  rider  is  a  provision  attached  to  a  legislative  bill, 
which  has  no  bearing  upon  the  bill  itself.  By  itself,  the  lill 
would  stand  no  chance  of  passage,  but  as  thus  amended  it  is  in- 
separable from  the  rider,  in  the  voting  both  bill  and  rider  are 
passed.  As  a  rule,  the  rider  is  attached  to  an  appropriation 
bill. 

Salt  River. —  When  a  candidate  for  public  office  has  been 
defeated  his  opponents  playfully  say  that  he  has  gone  up  Salt 
River.  Salt  River  is  a  narrow,  crooked  stream  in  Kentucky, 
and  was  once  a  favorite  stronghold  for  river  pirates.  "Whenever 
anything  was  lost  or  stolen,  the  saying  was,  that  it  had  been 
rowed  up  Salt  River. 

Slate. —  When  politicians  make  up  the  slate,  the  meaning  is 
that  they  have  drawn  up  the  list  of  party  nominations,  prelimi- 
nary to  presenting  them  to  the  nominating  convention. 

Smelling  Committee. —  This  is  political  slang  for  an 
investigation  committee.  When  there  is  a  suspicion  abroad  of  the 
existence  of  corruption,  and  an  investigation  committee  is 
appointed,  the  politicians  suspected  speak  of  the  committee  as  a 
I' smelling"  committee.  The  Democratic  party  in  Massachusetts, 
in  1886,  appointed  a  smelling  committee  to  find  out  and  make 
report  regarding  the  Republican  office-holders  who  had  been  kept 
in  office  by  a  Democratic  Federal  officer,  although  in  this  instance 


SLANti    OB1    POLITICS.  377 

the  only  offence    was   a   violation    of   the    doctrine  that  "  to  the 
victors  belong  the  spoils." 

Snap  Convention. — Snap  is  a  word  which  in  a  certain 
sense  means  that  which  is  sudden  and  unexpected,  and  in  a 
degree  unwarrantable.  It  implies  the  notion  of  superficially, 
and  somewhat  of  conspiracy.  The  Democratic  convention  in 
New  York  State  in  the  early  part  of  1892,  was  called  a  "snap" 
convention,  because  it  did  not  represent  the  party  at  large,  and 
was  called  unexpectedly  by  a  ring  having  in  view  the  political 
advancement  of  Senator  David  B.  Hill. 

Soap. — In  the  campaign  of  1880,  the  Republican  managers 
used  the  word  "soap,"  meaning  money,  in  their  telegraphic 
despatches.  It  was  brought  out  at  a  dinner  in  New  York,  in 
celebration  of  the  Republican  victory,  that  "  soap  "  had  carried 
the  election  in  the  doubtful  State  of  Indiana. 

Sore- head. — A  sore-head  is  a  politician  who  has  become  dis- 
gruntled because  his  party  has  failed  to  recognize  his  services, 
and  who  resolves  thenceforth  to  use  his  influence  against  it. 

Soup. — The  phrase  "  in  the  soup  "  is  believed  to  have  orig- 
inated with  a  New  York  newspaper  reporter,  who  in  writing 
up  a  base-ball  game,  spoke  of  the  defeated  nine  as  having  fallen 
into  the  soup.  Since  then  it  has  become  part  of  the  slang  of  the 
street,  and  in  a  political  sense  it  means  that  a  candidate  has 
met  with  ignoble  defeat. 

Spellbinder. —  In  the  campaign  of  1888,  some  of  the  Repub- 
lican orators,  in  telling  of  their  oratorical  triumphs,  habitually 
used  the  word  "  spellbound."  A  political  wag  playfully  referred 
to  the  orators  as  "  spellbinders."  The  word  was  taken  up  by  the 
press  and  had  a  wide  circulation. 

Spoils  System. —  The  phrase  "  to  the  victor  belong  the 
spoils  of  the  enemy,"  originated  with  Senator  William  L.  Marcy, 
of  New  York,  in  a  speech  in  the  United  States  Senate,  in  1881. 
The  doctrine  was  accepted  by  the  Democrats  and  put  into  prac- 
tice first  by  Andrew  Jackson,  and  later  by  the  Republicans. 

Star-Eyed  Goddess. —  Usually  written  "  Star- Eyed  God- 
dess of  Reform,"  a  striking  phrase  original  with  Editor  Henry 
Watterson,  of  Louisville,  Kentucky,  who  made  use  of  it  in  a 
Democratic  editorial.  The  opposition  press  since  then  has  play- 
fully dubbed  him  the  "  Star-Eyed  Goddess." 

Striker. —  A  striker  in  politics  is  a  man  who  makes  his  living 
by  seeking  corruptly  to  influence  legislation.  He  is  generally  in 
the  employ  of  private  individuals  who  are  interested  in  the  legis- 
lation under  consideration.  The  striker  holds  himself  ready  to 
do  the  dirty  work  necessary  to  secure  the  passage  of  a  bill.  In 
another  sense,  a  striker  is  a  "  heeler." 


378  SLANG   OF   POLITICS. 

Stump  Speaker.,—  A  stump  speaker  is  an  orator  who 
engages  with  a  political  committee  to  make  speeches  in  a  given 
territory,  in  which  he  is  spoken  of  as  having  taken  the  stump,  or 
of  "being  on  the  stump."  In  rural  localities,  orators  make  their 
speeches  from  the  most  convenient  places,  and  more  often  than 
not  in  olden  times,  the  place  chosen  was  the  stump  of  a  tree. 

Swinging  Round  the  Circle.  — In  1866  Andrew  Johnson 
made  a  trip  to  Chicago,  accompanied  by  a"  large  party.  He  made 
stops  at  all  the  large  cities,  and  delivered  speeches  of  a  political 
nature.  Hence  the  phrase.  Since  then  other  Presidents  have 
swung  round  the  circle,  the  most  notable  instance  being  Presi- 
dent Harrison's  tour  of  the  country  in  1891,  when  he  started  from 
Washington,  visited  the  South,  and  thence  travelled  through  the 
Southern  belt  of  States  to  California,  whence  he  travelled  up  the 
Pacific  coast  to  Oregon  and  Washington,  and  thence  eastward. 

Trading.  —  In  politics  trading  is  of  frequent  occurrence. 
Sometimes  by  a  trade  the  weaker  candidate  is  able  to  secure  a 
majority  of  the  votes ;  but  he  does  so  by  holding  out  certain 
promises  to  the  people  with  whom  he  makes  the  trade,  which 
usually  concern  the  patronage  of  the  offices.  There  are  in  every 
party  professional  traders,  men  who  possess  some  small  following 
which  they  will  sell  out  to  the  opposing  party  or  candidate  for  a 
consideration,  which  is  sometimes  money,  but  more  often  appoint- 
ment to  office. 

Tidal  Wave.  —  In  a  political  sense,  a  tidal  wave  is  a  "  clean 
sweep,"  a  Waterloo.  As  a  rule,  it  refers  to  the  nation  at  large 
rather  than  to  the  States.  If,  for  any  reason,  one  party  carries 
an  unprecedentedly  large  number  of  States,  it  is  spoken  of  as  a 
tidal  wave. 

Voting  in  the  Air William  M.  Evarts,  of  New  York, 

used  the  phrase  in  refere^oe  to  those  who  intended  to  vote  for 
St.  John,  the  Prohibitionist  candidate,  in  1884. 

Wets.  — This  word  originated  in  the  anti-liquor  campaign  in 
Georgia;  it  is  used  in  contradistinction  to  "Drys." 

Whitewash.  —  When  an  investigation  committee  makes  a 
non-committal  report  on  charges  of  wrongdoing  where  there  is 
reason  to  believe  the  charges  are  well  founded,  the  charges  are 
said  to  be  "  whitewashed." 

Wire  Puller.  —  The  wire  puller  lays  deep  and  well -conceived 
plans  for  securing  political  advancement.  He  does  this  unsus- 
pected, and  at  the  right  moment  cornes  to  the  front  betraying 
wonderful  strength. 

Slate.     (See  Slang  of  Politics.) 

Slippery  Sam.      (See  Nicknames  of  Famous  Americans.) 


SONGS   OF    THE    NATIO^f.  379 

Smelling  Committee.     (See  Slang  of  Politics.) 
Snap  Convention.     (See  Slang  of  Politics.) 
Soap.      (See  Slang  of  Politics.) 

Sobriquets  Of  Presidents.      (See  Presidents   of  the  United 

States.) 

SockleSS  Jerry.      (See  Nicknames  of  Famous  Americans.) 
Softs.      (See  Barn-Burners,  under  Political  Parties.) 
Soldiers'  Homes.     (See  Army,  United  States.) 
Songs  of  the  Nation. 

Star  Spangled  Banner.  Hail  Columbia. 

My  Country,  'tis  of  Thee.  Dixie. 

It  is  not  easy  to  say  which  of  the  national  songs  most  reflects 
the  national  spirit.  The  "  Star  Spangled  Banner,"  "  Hail  Colum- 
bia," and  "  My  Country,  'tis  of  Thee,"  all  breathe  forth  liberty 
and  patriotism.  Possibly  the  most  stirring,  the  most  suggestive 
of  the  martial  spirit,  the  spirit  which  leads  men  to  battle  for  their 
flag,  is  "The  Star  Spangled  Banner."  It  was  written  by  Francis 
Barton  Key  during  the  light  between  the  British  and  the  Ameri- 
cans at  Fort  McHenry,  Baltimore,  Md.,  in  the  war  of  1812. 
Under  a  flag  of  truce,  Key  had  gone  on  board  the  British  flag- 
ship to  solicit  the  release  of  a  prisoner,  when  the  attack  of  the 
fort  was  begun.  He  was  therefore  an  eye-witness  of  all  that  took 
place  in  the  battle,  and  this  he  has  admirably  described,  in  thrill- 
ing words,  in  the  song,  as  follows  :  - 

THE  STAR  SPANGLED  BANNER. 

Oh!  say,  can  you  see  by  the  dawn's  early  light, 

What  so  proudly  we  hailed  at  the  twilight's  last  gleaming; 
Whose  broad  stripes  and  bright  stars  through  the  perilous  fight, 

O'er  the  ramparts  we  watch'd,  were  so  gallantly  streaming; 
And  the  rockets'  red  glare,  the  bombs  bursting  in  air, 
Gave  proof  through  the  night  that  our  flag  was  still  there. 
Oh,  say,  does  the  star  spangled  banner  still  wave, 
O'er  the  land  of  the  free,  and  the  home  of  the  brave? 

On  the  shore  dimly  seen  through  the  mists  of  the  deep, 
Where  the  foe's  haughty  host  in  dread  silence  reposes, 

What  is  that  which  the  breeze,  o'er  the  towering  steep, 
As  it  fitfully  blows,  half  conceals,  half  discloses? 

Now  it  catches  the  gleam  of  the  morning's  first  beam, 

In  full  glory  reflected  now  shines  in  the  stream. 

'Tis  the  star  spangled  banner,  oh!  long  may  it  wave 

O'er  the  land  of  the  free  and  the  home  of  the  brave. 

And  where  is  that  band  who  so  vauntingly  swore 
That  the  havoc  of  war  and  the  battle's  confusion, 


380  £ONGS    OF    THE    NATION. 

A  home  and  a  country  shall  leave  us  no  more  ? 

Their  blood  has  washed  out  their  foul  footsteps'  pollution; 
No  refuge  can  save  the  hireling  and  slave, 
From  the  terror  of  flight  or  the  gloom  of  the  grave. 
And  the  star  spangled  banner  in  triumph  shall  wave, 
O'er  the  land  of  the  free  and  the  home  of  the  brave. 

Oh  I  thus  be  it  ever  when  freemen  shall  stand 
Between  their  lov'd  home  and  the  war's  desolation; 

Blest  with  victory  and  peace,  may  the  heaven-rescued  land 
Praise  the  power  that  has  made  and  preserved  us  a  nation. 

Then  conquer  we  must  when  our  cause  it  is  just, 

And  this  be  our  motto,  "In  God  is  our  trust"; 

And  the  star  spangled  banner  in  triumph  shall  wave 

O'er  the  land  of  the  free  and  the  home  of  the  brave. 

Yankee  Doodle. — The  oldest  of  the  songs  of  America  is 
Yankee  Doodle.  This  ever  popular  air  was  written,  with  origi- 
nal words,  by  an  English  officer  in  the  War  of  the  Revolution. 
The  volunteer  soldiers  who  were  recruited  in  1775  to  defend 
Ticonderoga  were  of  so  motley  an  appearance,  and  their  Aveapons 
of  so  primitive  a  character,  that  the  officer  caricatured  them  in  a 
song  which  he  entitled  Yankee  Doodle.  He  dedicated  the  song 
to  the  recruits,  who  took  the  joke  in  excellent  good  part.  The 
air  hit  the  fancy  of  all  lovers  of  simple  songs,  and  in  the  Conti- 
nental Army  it  was  adopted  as  a  camp-fire  song.  The  tune,  by 
some,  is  said  to  be  of  ancient  origin.  The  original  version  of 
"  Yankee  Doodle  "  is  given  as  follows  :  — 

YANKEE  DOODLE. 

Father  and  I  went  down  to  camp 

Along  with  Captain  Goodwin, 
Where  we  see  the  men  and  boys 

As  thick  as  hasty  puddin'. 

There  was  Captain  Washington 

Upon  a  slapping  stallion, 
A-giving  orders  to  his  men  — 

I  guess  there  was  a  million. 

And  then  the  feathers  on  his  hat, 

They  looked  so  tarnal  fine, 
I  wanted  pockily  to  get 

To  give  to  my  Jemime. 

And  then  they  had  a  swampin'  gun 

As  large  as  log  of  maple, 
On  a  deuced  little  cart  — 

A  load  for  father's  cattle. 

And  every  time  they  fired  it  off 

It  took  a  horn  of  powder, 
It  made  a  noise  like  father's  gun 

Only  a  nation  louder. 


SONGS    OF    THE    NATION. 


381 


CHEISTOPHER    COLUMBUS. 


382  SONGS    OF    THE    NATION. 

I  went  as  near  to  it  myself 

As  Jacob's  underpinning 
And  father  went  as  near  again  — 

I  thought  the  deuce  was  in  him. 

And  there  I  see  a  little  keg, 

Its  heads  were  made  of  leather  — 
They  knock'd  upon't  with  little  sticks, 

To  call  the  folks  together. 

And  there  they'd  fife  away  like  fun, 

And  play  on  cornstalk  fiddles, 
And  some  had  ribbons  as  red  as  blood 

All  wound  around  their  middles. 

The  troopers,  too,  would  gallop  up, 

And  fire  right  in  our  faces; 
It  scared  me  almost  half  to  death 

To  see  them  run  such  races. 

Old  Uncle  Sam  came  there  to  change 

Some  pancakes  and  some  onions, 
For  'lasses  cakes  to  carry  home 

To  give  his  wife  and  young  ones. 

But  I  can't  tell  you  half  I  see, 

They  keep  up  such  a  smother; 
So  I  took  my  hat  off  —  made  a  bow, 

And  scampered  home  to  mother. 

My  Country,  'tis  of  Thee. — The  national  hymn,  "  Amer- 
ica," was  composed  in  1832  by  Rev.  S.  F.  Smith,  of  Newton, 
Mass.,  in  response  to  the  request  of  Lowell  Mason,  Esq.,  who 
had  charge  of  the  musical  programme  of  the  Fourth  of  July 
exercises  at  Park  Street  Church,  Boston,  at  which  the  hymn  was 
sung.  Mr.  Mason  asked  Mr.  Smith,  who  was  a  successful  writer 
of  hymns,  for  an  original  hymn  suitable  to  the  day.  The  words 
are  as  follows : 

AMERICA. 

My  country,  'tis  of  thee, 
Sweet  laud  of  liberty, 

Of  thee  I  sing; 
Land  where  my  fathers  died, 
Land  of  the  pilgrims'  pride, 
From  every  mountain  side 

Let  freedom  ring. 

My  native  country, — thee, 
Land  of  the  noble,  free, — 

Thy  name  I  love; 
I  love  thy  rocks  and  rills, 
Thy  woods  and  templed  hills, — 
My  heart  with  rapture  thrills, 

Like  that  above. 


SONGS    OF    THE    NATION.  383 

Let  music  swell  the  breeze, 
And  ring  from  all  the  trees 

Sweet  Freedom's  song; 
Let  mortal  tongues  awake, 
Let  all  that  breathe  partake, 
Let  rocks  their  silence  break, — 

The  sound  prolong. 

Our  fathers'  God,  to  Thee, 
Author  of  liberty, 

To  Thee  we  sing; 
Long  may  our  land  be  bright 
With  freedom's  holy  light; 
Protect  us  by  Thy  might, 

Great  God,  our  King. 

Hail  Columbia. —  The  words  of  Hail  Columbia  were  written 
by  Judge  Joseph  Hopkinson,  son  of  Francis  H.  Hopkinson,  who 
was  one  of  those  who  signed  the  Declaration  of  Independence. 
Hopkinson  wrote  the  words  to  the  tune  of  the  President's  March, 
as  a  favor  to  a  young  actor  in  Philadelphia,  in  1798,  on  the  occa- 
sion of  his  benefit,  when  the  President's  march  was  played  by 
the  orchestra  of  the  theatre.  The  inspiration  of  the  song- writer 
was  derived  from  the  war  spirit  prevailing  in  consequence  of  the 
threatened  trouble  with  France.  The  President's  March  was  the 
composition  of  a  German  by  the  name  of  Fayles,  and  was  first 
played  in  a  theatre  in  New  York  which  Washington  attended  in 
1789. 

Dixie. —  The  popular  song  of  the  South  during  the  war  was 
"  Dixie."  Dixie  was  a  rich  slave-owner,  his  estate  being  known 
as  "  Dixie's  land,"  and  the  song  is  believed  to  have  been  a 
melody  sung  by  the  negroes  on  his  plantation.  In  a  book  of 
army  songs,  now  out  of  print,  published  in  the  South  during  the 
Civil  War,  is  the  following  version  of  the  original  Dixie  : 

THE  OKIGINAL   DIXIE. 

I  wish  I  was  in  the  land  of  cotton  — 
Old  times  dar  are  not  forgotten. 

Look  away!    Look  away!    Look  away! 
In  Dixie's  land,  where  I  was  born  in, 
Early  on  one  frosty  mornin'. 

Look  away!     Look  away!    Look  away! 

CHORUS. —  Den  I  wish  I  was  in  Dixie, 

Hooray,  hooray! 
In  Dixie,  and  I  took  my  stand 
To  lib  and  die  in  Dixie, 
Away,  away,  away  down  South  in  Dixie. 

Old  missis  marry  Will  d'  Weaber; 
William  was  a  gay  deceaber. 
Look  away,  &c. 


384  SONS   OF   THE    REVOLUTION. 

But  when  lie  put  his  arm  around  'er, 
He  smile  as  fierce  as  a  forty-pounder. 

Look  away,  &c. 
CHOBUS. — 

His  face  was  sharp  as  a  butcher's  clcaber, 
But  den  dat  didn't  seem  to  greab  'er. 

Look  away,  &c. 

Old  missis  acted  de  foolish  part, 
And  died  for  a  man  that  broke  her  heart. 

Look  away,  &c. 
CHORUS. — 

Now  here's  a  health  to  the  next  old  missus, 
And  all  the  gals  that  want  to  kiss  us. 

Look  away,  &c. 

But  if  you  want  to  drive  away  sorrow, 
Come  and  hear  dis  song  to-morrow. 

Look  away,  &c. 
CHORUS. — 

Bar's  buckwheat  cake  and  ingen  batter, 
Make  you  fat  or  a  little  fatter. 

Look  away,  &c. 

Den  hoe  it  down  and  scratch  your  grabble, 
To  Dixie's  land  I'm  bound  to  trabble. 

Look  away,  &c. 
CHORUS. — 

Sons  Of  the  Revolution.—  The  object  of  this  society  is  to 
unite  all  those  who  are  descendants  of  an  ancestor  who  as  a 
soldier,  sailor,  or  civil  official,  helped  to  establish  the  indepen- 
dence of  the  United  States  of  America.  In  its  constitution,  its 
objects  are  defined  as  follows  :  "  To  keep  alive  among  ourselves 
and  our  descendants  the  patriotic  spirit  of  the  men  who,  in  mili- 
tary, naval,  or  civil  service,  by  their  acts  or  counsel,  achieved 
American  independence ;  to  collect  and  secure  for  preservation 
the  manuscript  rolls,  records,  and  other  documents  relating  to  the 
War  of  the  Revolution,  and  to  promote  intercourse  and  good 
feeling  among  its  members  now  and  hereafter."  The  organization 
was  established  in  New  York  City  in  1875.  There  are  similar 
societies  in  Pennsylvania,  Massachusetts,  New  Jersey,  Georgia, 
District  of  Columbia,  and  Iowa.  The  total  membership  is  about 
2,000.  Another  organization,  the  Sons  of  the  American 
Revolution,  was  organized  in  New  York  in  1889,  for  the  same 
purpose  as  the  first.  Other  States  with  societies  of  this  name  are 
New  Jersey,  Connecticut,  Maryland,  Vermont,  Massachusetts, 
Ohio,  Kentucky,  Tennessee,  Illinois,  Indiana,  Michigan,  New 
Hampshire,  Rhode  Island,  Virginia,  and  the  District  of  Columbia, 
but  many  of  them  contain  as  yet  only  enough  members  for  or- 
ganization. A  California  society  of  descendants  of  Revolutionary 


SOUTH    CAROLINA. 

patriots,  entitled  "  Sons  of  Revolutionary  Sires,"  organized  July 
4,  1876,  having  reorganized  and  changed  its  name  in  1889,  has 
been  admitted  to  membership. 

Daughters  of  the  American  Revolution. —  This  society 
includes  the  female  descendants  of  Revolutionary  patriots.  It  is 
organized  in  ten  States  and  has  a  membership  of  1,000.  Mrs. 
Benjamin  Harrison  is  President.  There  is  also  a  society  known 
as  "  Daughters  of  the  American  Revolution"  in  New  York. 

Sons  of  Veterans. —  This  is  an  organization  whose  member- 
ship the  past  ten  years  has  assumed  remarkable  proportions.  It 
is  estimated  that  about  100,000  men  belong  to  it.  All  of  them  are 
sons,  or  lineal  descendants,  eighteen  years  of  age.and  over,  of 
honorably  discharged  soldiers,  sailors,  and  marines,  who  served 
in  the  War  of  the  Rebellion.  The  Sons  of  Veterans  are  distinct 
from  the  Grand  Army  of  the  Republic,  but  their  well-drilled 
battalions  frequently  march,  unifoi'med,  in  the  Grand  Army 
parades.  There  is  a  national  organization  with  2,500  S.  of  V. 
camps. 

Sore-Head.     (See  Slang  of  Politics.) 
Soup.     (See  Slang  of  Politics.) 

South  Carolina.  —  The  State  was  settled  at  Beaufort  in  1668 
by  Englishmen.  It  has  always  been  an  important  factor  in  the 

history  of  American  politics,  espe- 
cially up  to  the  time  of  the  Civil  War. 
This  was  the  State  which  took  the 
most  advanced  ground  on  the  seces- 
sion question,  and  it  was  in  Charleston 
Harbor  that  Fort  Sumter,  occupied 
at  the  time  by  the  United  States 
troops,  was  fired  upon  by  Confederate 
batteries  on  April  12,  1861,  and 
thereby  precipitated  the  Civil  War. 
South  Carolina  gave  60,000  of  her 
sons  to  the  Confederate  cause,  of 

GREAT  SEAL  OP  SOUTH  CAROLINA.       Whom   12,000    died   in   SCrvlcC. 

For  100  miles  from  the  ocean  the 

country  is  flat,  and  then  the  uplands  begin.  The  lowlands  pro- 
duce oranges,  figs,  grapes,  and  olives.  The  uplands  produce  rice, 
tobacco,  cotton,  and  all  the  cereals.  Agriculture  is  the  chief 
industry,  the  farm  products  being  valued  at  $45,000,000  a  year. 
The  acreage  of  farm  lands  is  14,000,000,  valued  at  $75,000,000. 
In  cotton,  the  State  produces  upwards  of  700,000  bales. 

The  State  is  celebrated  for  its  Rice,  of  which  it  produces  up- 
wards of  75,000,000  pounds  a  year ;  it  raises  20,000,000  bushels 


386 


SOUTH    CAROLINA. 


of  corn,  and  4,000,000  of  oats.  The  lumber  industry  employs 
6,000  men.  Some  gold,  besides  silver,  lead,  copper,  iron  ore  in 
large  amounts,  granite,  marble,  magnesia,  mica,  kaolin,  and  large 
outputs  of  phosphate  are  other  resources  of  the  State.  It  pro- 
duces over  30  per  cent,  of  the  American  production  of  turpen- 
tine. About  70  per  cent,  of  the  population  is  colored,  and  all 
but  9  per  cent,  of  the  colored  population  works  on  the  farms. 
The  population  of  South  Carolina  in  1880  was  995,557;  in 

1890  it  was  11,511,- 
491,  of  whom  692,503 
were  colored  and 
458,454  white.  The 
net  State  debt  was 
$6,473,476;  the  real 
property  was  valued 
at  about  $90,000,000, 
the  personal  prop- 
erty at  $60,000,000. 
The  manufactures 
aggregated  $16,738,- 
000  ;  the  farm  lands 
numbered  13,500,000 
acres ;  the  total 
school  attendance 
was  136,358.  There 
were  in  1890,  2,193 
miles  of  railroad,  and 
in  1892,  126  news- 
papers. 

The  chief  city  is 
Charleston,  which 
has  a  fine  situation  on 
the  coast,  and  carries 
on  a  large  commerce 
with  the  coast  cities 
of  the  North  ;  its 
exports  are  now  mainly  of  cotton,  naval-stores,  phosphate,  and 
rice,  and  aggregate  $20,000,000  a  year.  The  city  suffered  from 
a  serious  earthquake  August  31,  1886,  which  destroyed  $5,000- 
000  in  property  and  resulted  in  many  deaths.  The  public  build- 
ings in  Charleston  are  the  Custom  House,  Charleston  College, 
and  South  Carolina  Military  Academy,  which  is  supported  by  the 
State.  The  population  in  1$90  was  54,955. 

The    second  city   is    Columbia,  which   is   the  capital   and  an 
important  railway  centre  ;   the  population  in  1890  was  15,333. 


SECESSION  HALL,  CHARLESTON,  S.  0. 


SOUTH   DAKOTA. 


38T 


GREAT  SEAL  OF  SOUTH  DAKOTA. 


The  South  Carolina  University,  a  State  institution,  is  hero. 
Greenville,  which  is  the  third  city,  had  a  population  in  181)0  ol 
8,607,  and  is  the  site  of  Furman  University,  founded  in  18f>l  by 
the  Baptists.  The  governor  of  South  Carolina  is  Ben  R.  Till- 
man  (Democrat).  His  terra  expires  December  8,  1892.  The 
State  is  Democratic. 

South  Dakota.  —  Both  Dakotas  were  part  of  the  Louisiana 
Purchase  in  1803;  the  first'  settlement  was  at  Sioux  Falls,  in 

1857,  by  people  from  Iowa.  The 
Indians  being  troublesome,  the  United 
States  Government  established  garri- 
sons in  the  country,  and  waged  a 
campaign  against  the  Indians,  which 
resulted  in  the  shedding  of  blood. 

The  greater  part  of  South  Dakota 
is  a  high,  undulating  plain,  penetrated 
by  hundreds  of  rivers  and  streams, 
and  having  a  large  number  of  lakes. 
The  Missouri  River  crosses  the  State 
from  the  northwest  to  the  southeast, 
and  is  navigable  throughout,  having 
as  tributaries  the  Yellowstone,  Little 
Missouri,  White,  Big  Cheyenne,  and  Niobrara  Rivers.  The  Big 
Sioux  forms  part  of  the  southeastern  boundary ;  the  valleys  are 
very  fertile,  being  covered  with  a  dark  alluvial  loam,  making  an 
ideal  soil  for  the  raising  of  cereals. 

The  Development  of  the  State,  which  has  been  going  on 
chiefly  during  the  last  fifteen  years,  has  been  phenomenal.  Agri- 
culture is  the  leading  industry,  and  there  are  50,000  farms  which 
are  valued  at  $70,000,000.  The  wheat  crop  exceeds  17,000,000 
bushels  a  year,  the  oat  crop,  12,000,000,  the  barley  crop,  17,000,- 
000,  and  the  potato  and  flax  crops  aggregate  2,500,000  each. 
Hay  and  grasses  are  produced  in  great  abundance.  The  State 
has  upwards  of  400,000  cattle,  300,000  swine,  150,000  sheep, 
200,000  horses,  including  a  large  blooded  stock. 

The  Black  Hills  of  South  Dakota  cover  over  3,000  square 
miles,  and  attain  an  elevation  of  9,700  feet.  The  gold  mines  of 
this  region  have  been  very  productive,  the  output  having  reached 
$50,000,000  worth  of  gold  and  silver.  Tin  is  found  in  the  Black 
Hills  in  large  quantities.  The  Black  Hills  also  have  saline 
springs,  mica,  copper  ore,  petroleum,  some  natural  gas,  and  some 
other  minerals,  besides  white,  red,  and  other  sandstones,  granite, 
marble,  limestone,  and  various  other  strata.  Jasper  in  various 
shades  is  found  and  quarried  in  the  southeastern  part  of  the 
State. 


ggg  SOVEBJEIGNTY    UNDER    HIS    HAT. 

The  United  States  Military  Posts  are  :  Fort  Bennett, 
Fort  Sully,  Fort  Randall,  and  Fort  Meade,  all  of  which  maintain 
garrisons  constantly.  There  are  upwards  of  20,000  Sioux 
Indians  on  the  reservations  of  South  Dakota  under  the  care  of 
Indian  agents,  the  Indian  police,  and  the  clergy.  There  are  six 
Reservations  :  Pine-Ridge,  Rosebud,  Yankton,  Cheyenne 
River,  Crow  Creek,  and  Sisseton.  The  work  of  civilizing  these 
Indians  goes  steadily  on.  At  Pierre  there  is  an  Indian  industrial 
school  which  is  maintained  by  the  government,  where  the  chil- 
dren of  the  savages  are  instructed  in  the  useful  arts. 

The  progressive  spirit  of  the  people  of  Dakota  is  a  marked 
characteristic.  There  is  a  large  university  at  Vermillion,  an 
Agricultural  College  at  Brookings,  a  School  of  Mines  at  Rapid 
City,  close  to  the  mineral  regions  of  the  Black  Hills,  and  five 
sectarian  colleges,  besides  several  other  seminaries  supported  by 
churches  of  various  denominations. 

The  population  of  South  Dakota,  in  1880,  was  98,268  ;  in 
1890,  328,808.  The  value  of  assessed  property  ^was  $97,314,000. 
There  are  2,848  miles  of  railroads  and  275  newspapers. 

The  chief  city  is  Sioux  Falls,  which  had  a  population  in  1890 
of  10,177;  it  is  situated  on  the  Big  Sioux  River  in  the  south- 
east corner  of  the  State.  The  river  has  a  fall  near  the  city  of 
ninetv  feet,  affording  water  power  for  large  factories  and  other  in- 
dustries. The  quarrying  industry  of  Sioux  Falls  is  an  important  one. 

The  second  city  in  population  is  Aberdeen,  which  has  6,500  in- 
habitants. The  third  city  is  Watertown,  which  has  5,000  inhabi- 
tants and  has  many  public  buildings  and  factories.  The  mining 
centre  of  the  Black  Hills  is  Deadwood,  which  has  a  popula- 
tion of  3,500.  A.  C.  Mellette  (Republican),  is  Governor  of 
South  Dakota.  His  term  of  office  expires  January  1,  1893. 
During  its  career  as  a  Territory,  South  Dakota  was  Republican. 

Sovereignty  Under  His  Hat.  (See  Sayings  of  Famous 
Americans.) 

Speaker,  The.  (See  House  c  Representatives  Under 
Federal  Government.) 

Specie  Payments.     (See  Panics,  Financial.) 
Speed  of  Ocean  Steamships.    (See  Ship-Building.) 
Speed,  Railroads.     (See  Railroads  and  Bridges.) 
Spellbinder.    (See  Slang  of  Politics.) 

Spoils  of  the  Enemy,  To  the  Victor  Belong.  (See  Slang 
of  Politics.) 

Squatter  Sovereignty.—  The  doctrine  that  the  people  of  the 
States  and  Territories  should  be  allowed  to  settle  the  slavery 


STANDARD    TIME.  389 

question  for  themselves  and  among  themselves.  It  originated  in 
the  discussion  of  the  Wilmot  Proviso  (which  see).  "  Squatter 
Sovereignty  "  is  the  derisive  name  applied  by  John  C.  Calhoun  to 
the  doctrine  of  "Popular  Sovereignty"  (which  see). 

St.  Jerome.     (See  Nicknames  of  Famous  Americans.) 

Stalwarts*     (See  Political  Parties.) 

Standard  Time. 

Time  Divisions.  Time  Balls. 

Time  of  Noon.  Time  Signals. 

What  is  known  as  the  "new  standard  time"  was  adopted 
by  agreement  by  all  the  principal  railroads  of  the  United  States 
at  12  o'clock,  noon,  on  November  18,  1883.  The  system 
divides  the  continent  into  five  longitudinal  belts,  and  fixes 
a  meridian  of  time  for  each  belt.  These  meridians  are  fifteen 
degrees  of  longitude,  corresponding  to  one  hour  of  time,  apart. 
Eastern  Maine,  New  Brunswick,  and  Nova  Scotia  use  the  60th 
meridian;  the  Canadas,  New  England,  the  Middle  States,  Vir- 
ginia, and  the  Carolinas  use  the  75th  meridian,  which  is  that  of 
Philadelphia  ;  the  States  of  the  Mississippi  Valley,  Alabama, 
Georgia,  and  Florida,  and  westward,  including  Texas,  Kansas,  and 
the  larger  part  of  Nebraska  and  Dakota,  use  the  90th  meridian, 
which  is  that  of  New  Orleans.  The  Territories  to  the  western 
border  of  Arizona  and  Montana  go  by  the  time  of  the  105th 
meridian,  .  which  is  that  of  Denver ;  and  the  Pacific  States 
employ  the  120th  meridian.  The  Time  Divisions  are  known 
as  inter-colonial  time,  eastern  time,  central  time,  mountain  time, 
and  Pacific  time.  A  traveller  passing  from  one  time  belt  to 
another  will  find  his  watch  an  hour  too  fast  or  too  slow,  accord- 
ing to  the  direction  in  which  he  is  going.  All  points  in  any  time 
division  using  the  time  of  the  meridian  must  set  their  time-pieces 
faster  or  slower  than  the  time  indicated  by  the  sun,  according  as 
their  position  is  east  or  west  of  the  line.  This  change  of  system 
reduced  the  time  standards  used  by  the  railroads  from  fifty-three 
to  five. 

At  12  noon  in  New  York  City  (eastern  time),  the  time  at 
Chicago  (central  time)  is  11  o'clock  A.  M.  ;  at  Denver  (moun- 
tain time),  10  o'clock  A.  M.  ;  and  at  San  Francisco  (Pacific 
time),  9  o'clock  A.  M.  Standard  time  is  16  minutes  slower  at 
Boston  than  true  local  time,  3  minutes  slower  at  New  York,  8 
minutes  faster  at  Washington,  19  minutes  faster  at  Charleston, 
28  minutes  slower  at  Detroit,  18  minutes  faster  at  Kansas  City, 
10  minutes  slower  at  Chicago,  1  minute  faster  at  St.  Louis,  28 
minutes  faster  at  Salt  Lake  City,  and  10  minutes  faster  at  San 


390  STATES,   CITIES,   COUNTIES,   AND   TOWNS. 

Francisco.  Since  the  general  adoption  of  standard  time,  the 
Time  of  Noon  by  the  75th  meridian  has  been  sent  out  from  the 
naval  observatory  at  Washington.  A  few  minutes  before  noon 
the  transmitter  clock  is  compared  with  the  standard  clock  on  a 
chronograph,  and  the  amount  of  its  error  determined.  It  is  then 
set  exactly  right  by  gently  touching  the  pendulum  with  the  fin- 
ger, making  the  clock  gain  or  lose,  as  is  necessary,  by  acceler- 
ating or  retarding  the  pendulum.  At  11.56.  45  A.  M.  the  transmit- 
ter is  switched  in  and  the  signals  are  transmitted  to  all  parts  of 
the  country,  being  heard  in  every  telegraph  office  through  which 
they  pass.  After  a  number  of  preliminary  signals,  a  second 
apart  from  one  another,  the  noon  signal  is  given  on  the  instant 
of  noon,  and  lasting  about  a  full  second.  Thus,  every  day  at 
noon,  the  clocks  in  the  government  offices  are  set  at  accurate 
time,  Tijme-Balls  are  dropped  at  Boston,  Newport,  Wood's 
lloll,  Mass.,  New  York,  Philadelphia,  Baltimore,  Fort  Monroe, 
Savannah,  and  New  Orleans ;  the  numerous  offices  of  the  West- 
ern Union  are  furnished  correct  time,  and  many  thousands  of 
miles  of  railways  are  given  the  signal  over  their  lines.  Every 
day  the  Western  Union  Telegraph  Company  suspends  its  private 
business  for  the  time  used  in  transmitting  the  signals,  and  allows 
the  Washington  observatory  the  free  use  of  its  great  facilities. 
During  those  four  minutes  no  private  messages  can  be  trans- 
mitted. 

Star-Eyed  Goddess.     (See  Slang  of  Politics.) 
Stars  and  Bars. — The  name  for  the  flag  of  the  Confederacy. 
It  had   a  blue  Union,  with  as  many  white   stars  as  there   were 
States  in   the  Confederacy,  and  a  field  of  three   bars,  the  centre 
one  white,  the  others  red. 

Star  Spangled  Banner.     (See  Songs  of  the  Nation.) 
States,  Cities,  Counties,  and  Towns,  Government  of. 

State  Officers.     County  Officers.     Town  Officers. 
Functions.  Shire-Mote.  School  Committee. 

Salaries.  County  Courts.       Town  Meetings. 

The  highest  officer  of  a  State  is  the  Governor.  The  other  im- 
portant officers  are  the  Lieutenant-Governor,  whose  function,  as 
a  rule,  is  merely  nominal,  the  office  being  created  to  prevent  an 
interregnum  in  the  event  of  the  Governor's  demise  ;  the  Secre- 
tary of  State,  who  keeps  the  records  of  corporations,  and  copies 
of 'all  public  documents,  including  the  State  papers,  the  public 
Acts,  the  petitions  of  the  people,  etc.,  all  of  whjch  are  required 
to  be  kept  "  on  file,"  otherwise  they  become  null ;  the  Comp- 
troller, or  Auditor,  who  sees  that  the  accounts  of  the  State 


*,' 


STATES,    CITIES,    COUNTIES,    AND    TOWNS.  391 

Treasurer  are  honestly  and  faithfully  kept,  and  who  audits  and 
makes  annual  report  of  the  same  to  the  legislature,  and  who 
issues  warrants,  without  which  the  Treasurer  cannot  pay  out 
money;  the  State  Treasurer,  who  receives  the  moneys  due  for 
taxes,  and  the  incomes  from  various  sources,  and  who  pays  out 
money  when  authorized  to  do  so  by  the  legislature ;  the  Attor- 
ney-General, who  gives  to  the  Governor,  the  Senate,  or  the 
House,  whenever  requested,  his  opinion  of  the  constitutionality 
of  laws,  and  who  defends  or  brings  suit  in  the  State  Courts  on 
behalf  of  the  State.  These  are  officers  which  all  States  have  in 
common,  but  in  many  States  there  are  other  officers,  frequently 
elected  by  the  people,  such  as  the  Superintendent  of  Public 
Works,  the  State  Engineer  and  Surveyor,  the  Superintendent  of 
Insurance,  or  Insurance  Commissioner,  the  Superintendents  of,  or 
Commissioners  of  Public  Instruction,  of  Agriculture,  of  Mines,  of 
Immigration,  of  Banks,  of  State  Prisons  and  Reformatories,  the 
State  Assessors,  the  Railroad  Commissioners,  etc.,  besides  com- 
missioners of  canals,  charities,  insane  asylums,  and  other  State 
institutions.  However,  the  last-named  category  of  officials  is,  in 
most  States,  subject  to  the  appointing  power  of  the  Governor. 

The  Duties  of  the  Governor  are  both  required  and  dis- 
cretionary. He  writes  annually  to  the  legislature  a  message 
which  conforms  to  the  same  general  lines  as  that  of  the  Presi- 
dent of  the  United  States  to  Congress ;  he  is  commander-in- 
chief  of  the  State  militia,  and  as  such  can  assist  the  sheriff  of  a 
county,  the  mayor  of  a  city,  or  the  President  of  the  United 
States  in  putting  down  a  riot ;  he  appoints  subordinate  State 
officers,  but  \dth  the  approval,  generally,  of  the  legislature,  or 
of  the  governor's  council ;  he  grants  or  refuses  requisitions  upon 
him  of  the  governors  of  other  States  for  the  extradition  of  crim- 
inals who  may  be  within  the  State ;  he  has,  in  most  States,  the 
power  of  pardon  and  of  commuting  sentence.  In  Massachusetts 
and  in  two  other  States,  the  governor's  appointments  are  subject 
to  the  approval  of  what  is  called  the  Governor's  Council, 
whose  members  are  chosen  one  for  each  of  several  specified  dis- 
tricts, and  whose  combined  power  in  some  instances  is  equal  to 
that  of  the  governor  himself,  nearly  all  his  acts  being  subject  to 
their  approval.  Finally,  the  governor's  most  important  and 
considerable  power  is  that  of  Vetoing  the  acts  of  the  legislature, 
a  power  which  all  governors  possess  except  those  of  Rhode 
Island,  Ohio,  Delaware,  and  North  Carolina.  In  thirteen  States, 
the  veto  power  of  the  governor  extends  to  particular  items  in 
a  bill  for  the  appropriation  of  money,  while  he  approves  of  the 
rest  of  the  bill. 

The   Discretionary  and  in  a  sense  the  Obligatory  Duties 


392  STATES,    CITIES,    COUNTIES,    AND    TOWNS. 

of  the  governor  are  attendance  at  State  affairs  and  other  public 
occasions,  the  dedication  of  hospitals,  State  institutions,  etc., 
the  holding  of  receptions  at  intervals  at  the  Executive  Mansion, 
or  the  State  Capitol,  to  which  the  members  of  the  legislature 
and  their  wives  and  the  citizens  generally  shall  be  invited, 
the  extending  of  the  courtesies  of  the  State  to  distinguished 
visitors  from  other  States,  and  in  many  other  ways  to  lend  the 
dignity  of  his  official  presence  in  behalf  of  the  citizens.  The 
Salary  of  the  Governor  in  most  States  is  $5,000  ;  in  New  York 
and  Pennsylvania  it  is  $10,000;  in  Massachusetts,  after  1892,  and 
in  Ohio  it  is  $8,000  ;  in  California  and  Illinois  it  is  $6,000  ;  in 
Delaware,  Maine,  New  Hampshire,  and  Michigan  the  salary  is 
but  $2,000,  which  is  the  smallest  salary  paid  in  any  of  the  States 
or  Territories.  In  twenty-three  States  and  Territories,  the  Term 
of  office  of  the  Governor  is  four  years,  in  others  it  is  three  or 
two  years,  and  in  Massachusetts  and  Rhode  Island  it  is  but  one 
year. 

The  Legislative  Branch  of  State  governments  c< insists  of 
the  Senate  and  the  House  of  Representatives.  NYith  them 
rest  the  regulation  of  the  suffrage  of  the  people,  their  education, 
the  laws  of  marriage  and  divorce,  the  legal  relations  of  parent 
and  child,  husband  and  wife,  and  guardian  and  ward  the  laws  of 
bankruptcy,  partnership,  debt,  insurance,  the  use  u  >ossession 
of  property,  the  laws  of  corporations,  of  contracts,  principal 
and  agent,  and  the  laws  relating  to  crime  and  misdemeanor.  The 
legislature  appropriates  money  for  public  enterprises  such  as  the 
building  of  canals,  bridges,  and  other  public  works;  it  grants 
charters  to  corporations,  including  railroad  companies  and  in- 
vestment companies.  The  more  clearly  to  separate  the  powers 
of  States  from  those  of  the  Federal  government,  the  States  are 
debarred  from  making  agreements  with  one  another,  or  with 
foreign  powers,  from  engaging  in  war,  except  in  case  of  self- 
defence,  from  maintaining  a  military  or  naval  force  without  the 
consent  of  Congress,  from  issuing  money,  or  bills  of  credit,  from 
conferring  titles  of  nobility,  etc.  In  most  of  the  States,  members 
of  the  legislature  are  chosen  on  the  basis  of  population,  but  in 
one  State,  Connecticut,  two  members  are  chosen  from  each  town 
or  city,  a  system  which  gives  the  rural  members  combined  more 
power  than  those  from  the  city. 

As  a  rule  the  Term  of  office  of  the  Representatives  is  two 
years ;  in  twenty-eight  States  and  Territories,  however,  the 
Senators  are  chosen  every  four  years.  In  Massachusetts  and 
Rhode  Island,  they  are  chosen,  like  the  members  of  the  lower 
house,  every  year.  The  Salary  of  members  is  either  by  the 
year,  or  per  diem.  The  average  pay  per  diem  is  $5.00,  exclusive 


STATES,   CITIES,    COUNTIES,    AND    TOWNS.  393 

of  mileage.     In    Pennsylvania,  the   pay   of  both   Senators    and 
Representatives  is  81,500  a  year. 

In  all  the  States  the  Judicial  Function  is  vested  in  the 
Supreme  Court  or  the  Court  of  Appeals.  As  a  rule,  the  mem- 
bers of  the  Supreme  Court  are  chosen  by  vote  of  the  people  at 
an  election,  which  may  or  may  not  be  at  the  same  time  as  that 
of  the  election  of  State  officers.  In  other  States,  however, 
judges  are  appointed  by  the  governor,  with  the  advice  and  con- 
sent of  the  council,  or  of  the  legislature.  This  plan  is  followed 
in  order  that  the  appointment  of  the  judiciary  may  be  divorced 
from  politics,  and  that  judges  of  high  personal  character  and 
legal  acumen  may  be  had.  When  Supreme  Court  judges  are 
appointed  by  the  governor,  the  appointment  is  for  life. 

Cities,  Government  of. — The  executive  branch  of  the 
government  of  cities  consists  of  the  Mayor  and  his  assistants, 
who  are  heads  of  departments,  Street  Commissioners,  Fire  Com- 
missioners, Police  Commissioners,  Overseers  of  the  Poor,  the 
Board  of  Health,  Superintendent  of  Parks,  Water  Commissioners, 
Assessors,  etc.  Besides,  there  is  the  City  Treasurer,  the  City 
or  Corporation  Counsel,  the  Comptroller,  the  Auditor,  the  Regis- 
trar, the  Tax  Collector.  The  legislative  department  consists  usu- 
ally of  a  Board  of  Aldermen,  but  in  many  cities  there  is  another 
body  called  a  Common  Council.  Their  power  is  delegated  usu- 
ally to  committees,  such  as  committees  on  public  buildings,  or 
streets,  or  sidewalks,  or  almshouses,  and  all  legislation  depends 
upon  the  report  of  these  committees.  There  are  many  Minor 
City  Officers  appointed,  some  by  the  mayor,  some  by  the  alder- 
men, such  as  superintendents  of  sewers,  street  lights,  bridges, 
ferries,  printing,  inspectors  of  milk  and  provisions,  sealers  of 
weights  and  measures,  pound-keepers,  boiler  and  building  inspec- 
tors, besides  constables,  election  officers,  and  various  deputies. 
There  is  always  a  School  Committee,  or  Board  of  Education, 
whose  members  are  elected  by  the  people,  but  in  some  cities 
they  are  appointed  by  the  Board  of  Aldermen.  Justices  of  the 
peace  are  many  in  number,  and  receive  their  authority,  as  a  rule, 
from  the  city.  In  cities,  the  judiciary  is  most  often  elected  by 
the  people  ;  in  Massachusetts  cities,  however,  the  judiciary  of  both 
municipal  and  county  courts  is  appointed  by  the  governor.  The 
Veto  Power  is  vested  in  the  mayor,  but  may  be  over-ridden 
and  his  appointments  may  be  rejected  by  the  aldermen. 

The  city  of '  Brooklyn,  N.  Y.,  a  few  years  ago,  revolutionized 
the  administration  of  its  government,  and  now  has,  besides 
the  mayor,  a  Board  of  Aldermen  (the  so-called  Board  of  Super- 
visors having  been  abolished),  and  two  other  elective  officers, 
the  Comptroller  and  the  Auditor.  The  mayor  appoints,  inde- 


394 


STATES,    CITIES,    COUNTIES,    AND    TOWNS. 


pendent  of  the  aldermen,  the  heads  of  departments,  who  are 
individuals  and  not  boards.  The  aim  was  to  rid  the  government 
.of  a  Superfluity  of  Officers  whose  chief  duty  consisted 
merely  in  drawing  a  good  salary,  and  also  to  divorce  the  gov- 
ernment from  politics. 

Counties,  Government  of. —  The  system  of  dividing 
States  into  counties  has  an  intimate  relation  with  the  shire-mote 
of  primitive  times  in  England.  The  Shire- Mote  was  a  legis- 
lative body  and  court  of  justice  for  the  people  of  the  clans. 
Each  clan  lived  separately,  and  had  its  own  laws  and  customs. 
As  time  went  on,  its  civic  organization  took  the  name  of  shire 
and  had  certain  specified  limits  of  territory  under  a  distinct  local 
government.  When,  in  1635,  the  English  Colonists  in  Massachu- 
setts, through 
their  General 
Court,  other- 
wise kiLown  as 
the  legislature, 
designated  four 
towns  where 
courts  should 
be  convened  at 
regular  inter- 
vals, it  was 
not  long  before 
these  towns  be- 
came the  cen- 
tres of  shires, 
and  were  called 
Shire 
Towns.  The 
towns,  how- 
ever, main- 
tained their  own  individual  existence,  managed  their  own  affairs, 
and  elected  their  own  officers,  the  shire  or  county  being  formed 
merely  for  convenience  in  the  settlement  of  legal  disputes,  or  the 
punishment  of  crime.  The  militia  of  each  town  formed  a  com- 
pany, and  the  companies  of  the  shire  formed  a  regiment.  The 
County  was  organized  as  a  judicial  district,  with  a  court  com- 
posed of  justices  of  the  peace  appointed  by  the  governor,  and  a 
county  courthouse  in  the  shire  town.  From  this  beginning  the 
system  of  counties  in  the  United  States  had  its  origin. 

In  Virginia,  on  the  other  hand,  the  counties  were  made  up  of 
Parishes.  The  plantations  being  so  far  apart,  and  the  planters 
themselves  being  aristocratic  and  unwilling  to  mingle  with  those 


CUSTOM     HOOSE,     BOSTON. 


STATES,    CITIES,    COUNTIES,    AND    TOWN8.  395 

who  were  not  planters,  the  town  system  did  not  flourish.  The 
planters  imported  the  English  parish,  whose  officers  were  church- 
wardens, a  clerk  and  the  vestry,  which  was  the  chief  legislative 
power  of  the  parish,  and  consisted  of  twelve  men.  There  were 
no  town-meetings.  The  Vestry  ultimately  filled  vacancies  in 
their  number,  levied  taxes,  looked  after  the  poor,  and  otherwise 
assumed  power.  The  minister  of  the  parish  presided  at  the 
vestry  meetings,  and  was  paid  for  his  ministerial  functions  gener- 
ally in  tobacco,  the  amount  of  which  was  fixed  by  the  vestry 
at  about  16,000  pounds.  The  common  people,  therefore,  had  no 
voice  in  the  parish  government.  The  chief  County  Officers 
were  the  justices  of  the  peace,  who  were  appointed  by  the 
governor,  and  constituted  the  county  court,  sitting  in  judicial 
cases.  The  sheriff  executed  their  judgments,  acted  as  tax 
gatherer  and  county  treasurer,  and  was  presiding  officer  at 
elections.  He  was  usually  one  of  the  county  court.  The 
Military  were  in  command  of  a  county  lieutenant,  who  wore 
the  title  of  colonel.  In  general,  it  may  be  said  that  in  Virginia 
the  county  governed  the  towns,  and  in  New  England  the  towns 
governed  themselves. 

In  South  Carolina,  the  parish  system  was  also  in  vogue,  but 
after  awhile  the  State  was  set  off  into  districts,  whose  officers 
were  at  first  chosen  by  the  governor,  but  ultimately  by  the  peo- 
ple themselves.  In  Maryland,  old  English  Usages,  such  as 
lords  of  the  manor,  bailiffs,  and  seneschals,  and  courts  baron  and 
leet,  prevailed  at  first.  Afterwards,  the  Hundred,  a  designation 
of  an  administrative  district  borrowed  from  early  England,  repre- 
sented the  divisions  of  the  people.  Finally  counties  were  set 
apart.  In  Delaware,  which  also  adopted  the  hundred  as  the 
unit  of  an  administrative  body,  the  system  prevails  to-day,  but 
with  certain  modifications  of  a  modern  nature.  Early  New  York 
had  local  self-government  by  towns,  and  in  Pennsylvania  the 
county  was  the  unit  of  representation  in  the  legislature,  the  peo- 
i  pie  choosing  the  sheriff,  the  county  commissioners,  the  treasurer, 
and  the  coroners.  These  are  the  chief  officers  of  counties  in  the 
several  States  to-day.  The  Sheriff  attends  all  county  courts, 
maintains  the  peace,  has  charge  of  the  prison  and  its  inmates,  and 
makes  arrests.  He  has  several  deputies,  and  in  cases  of  emer- 
gency he  is  empowered  to  call  upon  the  people  or  the  governor 
for  assistance.  The  County  Commissioners  have  charge  of 
the  roads,  the  levying  and  apportioning  of  taxes,  and  the  county 
institutions  and  buildings.  The  Treasurer  receives  and  dis- 
burses the  county  moneys.  The  Coroner  represents  the  govern- 
ment in  cases  of  unnatural  death,  and  makes  inquests  ns  he  sees 
fit.  There  are  other  officers,  the  Register  of  Deeds,  whose 


396  STATES,    CITIES,    COUNTIES,    AND   TOWNS. 

books  show  to  whom  all  the  lands  in  the  county  belong  and 
whenever  any  land  changes  hands,  and  the  County  Clerk, 
who  keeps  the  records  of  the  courts.  Especially  in  the  Southern' 
and  some  of  the  Western  States,  where  there  is  no  real  town 
government,  the  county  officers  have  charge  of  the  business 
which  in  Eastern  towns  is  managed  by  the  selectmen. 

The  judiciary  of  the  county  consists  of  a  Superior  Court,  a 
Probate  Court,  and  a  Court  of  Insolvency,  the  officers  of 
which  in  most  States  are  chosen  by  the  people ;  in  others  they 
are  appointed  by  the  governor. 

Towns,  Government  of. — The  chief  officers  of  a  town  are 
the  Selectmen,  who  call  town  meetings,  levy  taxes,  lay  out  high- 
ways, grant  liquor  licenses,  have  charge  of  the  poor-house,  and 
in  general  conduct  the  town  business.  They  are  elected  by  the 
people.  There  is  a  Town  Clerk  who  keeps  the  records  of 
town-meetings,  records  the  marriages,  births,  and  deaths,  and 
issues  marriage  certificates.  The  Town  Treasurer  receives 
and  disburses  the  town  moneys.  The  Constable,  or  constables, 
summon  jurors,  serve  writs,  make  arrests,  and  in  some  cases 
act  as  tax-collectors.  The  justice  of  the  peace  sits  in  petty  cases ; 
other  cases  are  referred  to  the  county  court.  In  some  towns 
there  are  overseers  of  the  poor,  tax  assessors,  surveyors  of  .high- 
ways and  bridges,  and  sealers  of  weights  and  measures.  Then 
there  is  the  School  Committee,  an  important  body,  having  the 
care  of  the  schools  of  a  township.  They  appoint  the  teachers, 
choose  the  text-books,  and  are  required  to  make  a  tour  of  inspec- 
tion of  the  schools  at  regular  intervals.  In  many  towns  of 
the  country,  women  are  permitted  to  vote  for  members  of  the 
school  committee.  (See  Ballot  Reform.)  Taxes  are  of  two 
kinds,  that  on  personal  property,  which  includes  bonds  and  stocks, 
furniture,  pictures,  and  household  furnishings  of  all  kinds,  besides 
cash  and  in  some  (if  over  $2,000)  from  employment  or  from 
profits  in  business.  The  other  kind  of  taxis  that  on  real- estate, 
whether  in  lands  or  buildings.  Churches,  graveyards,  charitable 
^institutions,  etc.,  are  exempt.  In  some  States,  the  poll-tax  is 
levied,  irrespective  of  the  other  taxes,  and  is  collected  of  all 
males  over  twenty-one  years  of  age.  Each  town  pays  a  tax  to 
the  county,  and  its  pro-rata  share  of  the  county  tax  to  the 
State. 

State  Department.     (See  Federal  Government.) 
Statue  of  Liberty.     (See  Monuments  and  Statues.) 
Steamships,  Transatlantic.     (See  Ship-Building.) 

Step-Father  of  His  Country.     (See  Presidents  of  the  United 

States.) 

•/ 


STOCK-RAISING. 


397 


StO(3fe-Raisillg.  —  Side  by  side  with  the  agricultural  develop- 
ment of  the  West,  there  has  grown  up  an  immense  industry  in  the 
trans- Mississippi  States,  in  the  raising  and  slaughtering  of  cattle 
for  beef.  What  may  be  called  the  cattle-raising  belt  extends 
from  Montana  to  Southern  Texas,  and  from  the  Mississippi  Valley 
to  the  Pacific.  On  the  prairies  of  this  vast  region,  and  on  many 
of  the  upland  plateaus,  millions  of  cattle,  sheep,  and  swine  roam 
at  will,  foraging  for  themselves,  and  requiring  for  their  care  a 
minimum  of  effort.  By  fortunate  climatic  conditions  the  south- 
ern half  of  this  area  may  be  utilized  to  advantage  for  breeding 
purposes,  and  the  northern  half  for  feeding  and  fattening.  Ex- 
perience has  shown  that  steers  bred  to  their  full  development  in 
the  warmer  climate  of  the  South,  when  sent  to  Wyoming,  for  in- 


CATTLE    HEEDS    IN    WYOMING. 

stance,  will  put  on  from  200  to  300  pounds  of  flesh,  while  100 
cows  which  in  Wyoming  give  65  calves,  in  Texas  will  give  £ 
calves.  The  cattle  interests  are  guarded  by  what  are  called 
Stock  Associations,  which  are  organizations  of  the  cattle  raisers 
in  the  several  districts.  Under  their  supervision,  the  "round- 
ups" are  held.  These  are  the  periodical  gatherings  of  all  the 
cattle  of  a  district  when  the  cattle  for  beef  are  chosen,  and  when 
the  owner  brands  his  calves.  The  calves  belonging  to  a  cattle- 
man are  determined  by  observing  the  brand  of  the  cows  the 


398  SUB-TBEASUKIES. 

calves  follow.  In  order  to  guard  against  the  sale  by  on^.  cattle 
raiser  of  the  cattle  of  another,  Stock  Association  inspectors  are 
appointed  to  watch  the  cattle  markets.  Most  of  the  cattle  com- 
panies are  incorporated,  and  the  invested  capital  aggregates  many 
millions,  a  large  portion  of  it  being  English  capital.  Texas,  Cali- 
fornia, Indian  Territory,  New  Mexico,  Colorado,  Kansas,  Wyo- 
ming, Nebraska,  the  Dakotas,  and  Montana  are  the  chief  cattle- 
raising  districts,  each  having  from  1,000,000  to  3,000,000  cattle 
on  the  ranges.  Sheep  and  swine  are  also  raised  in  these  States, 
Texas  and  California  leading  with  over  4,000,000  each. 

Cattle  Receipts. —  The  chief  receiving-centres  for  cattle  are 
Chicago,  St.  Louis,  Kansas  City,  and  Omaha ;  in  each  of  these 
cities  are  extensive  stock-yards  and  meat-packing  establishments. 
The  receipts  of  cattle  in  1890,  at  Chicago,  were  3,484,280  ;  at 
St.  Louis,  639,014;  at  Kansas  City,  1,472,229;  at  Omaha, 
606,699.  Of  sheep,  in  1890,  the  receipts  at  Chicago  were  2,182- 
667  ;  at  St.  Louis,  358,506 ;  at  Kansas  City,  535,869  ;  at  Omaha, 
156,186.  Of  swine,  in  1890,  the  receipts  at  Chicago  were 
7,663,828  ;  at  St.  Louis,  1,359,789  ;  at  Kansas  City,  2,865,171  ; 
at  Omaha,  1,673,314.  The  receipts  of  cattle  at  these  principal 
points  have  increased  70  per  cent,  in  five  years  ending  1890. 
The  export  trade  in  American  beef  and  hog  products  has  devel- 
oped into  a  most  profitable  industry  (see  Exports  and  Imports)  ; 
the  exports  of  beef  products  in  the  year  ending  June  30,  1891, 
were  $35,088,315,  of  hog  products,  $84,908,698. 

Storm  Signals,  etc.     (See  Signal  Service.) 
•   Street  Railways.     (See  Railroads  and  Bridges.) 
Striker.     (See  Slang  of  Politics.) 

Stuffed  Prophet.     (See  Presidents  of  the  United  States.) 
Stump  Speaker.     (See  Slang  of  Politics.) 

Sub-Treasuries. — The  sub-treasury  system  was  established  in 
order  to  give  the  United  States  exclusive  control  of  its  moneys. 
When  the  Bank  of  the  United  States  (which  see)  failed  to  secure 
a  renewal  of  its  charter,  the  sub-treasury  idea  was  brought  for- 
ward. The  act  creating  them  went  into  effect  July  4,  1840,  and 
provided  for  sub-treasuries  at  New  York,  Boston,  Charleston,  and 
St.  Louis,  and  made  the  Philadelphia  and  the  New  Orleans  mints 
places  of  deposit.  The  act  was  repealed  in  1841,  but  a  new  law 
substantially  the  same  as  the  old  one  was  passed,  and  went  into 
effect  in  1846.  While  under  this  system  the  government  is  its 
own  banker,  yet  it  is  allowed  to  place  money  on  deposit  in  the 
national  banks,  the  latter  giving  security  in  the  shape  of  govern- 
ment bonds.  (See  Finances,  Government.) 


TAKIFF  FOB  REVENUE  ONLY.  399 

The  Farmers'  Alliance  (which  see)  leaders  have  evolved  a  sys- 
tem of  sub-treasuries  far  more  elaborate  than  anything  the 
government  ever  contemplated.  They  favor  the  establishment 
of  sub- treasuries  in  each  county  of  each  State  when  demanded  by 
one  hundred  or  more  citizens,  where  grain,  corn,  or  tobacco  may 
be  deposited  at  will,  the  depositors  to  receive  therefor  Treasury 
notes  up  to  eighty  per  cent,  of  the  market  price  of  their  deposits. 
The  holders  of  such  notes  shall  pay  one  per  cent,  interest  on 
them  to  the  government.  This  plan,  it  is  asserted,  will  give^  the 
farmer  a  cash  market  for  his  crops,  and  save  him  from  the  evils 
of  the  existing  capitalistic  system  under  which  he  suffers. 

Sub-Treasury  Scheme.     (See  Farmers'  Alliance.) 
Sugar,  Production  Of.     (See  Agriculture.) 
Suicide    Is   Confession.     (See  Sayings   of  Famous  Ameri- 
cans.) 

Sunday-School  Enrollment.  (See  Religious  Denomina- 
tions.) 

Sunset  Cox.     (See  Nicknames  of  Famous  Americans.) 
Superb,  The.     (See  Nicknames  of  Famous  Americans.) 

Supreme  Court  Relief. — This  is  the  name  of  the  bill  passed 
by  the  Fifty -First  Congress,  for  the  relief  of  the  Supreme  Court. 
It  provides  for  the  appointment  in  each  circuit  of  an  additional 
circuit  judge,  and  creates  in  each  circuit  a  circuit  court  of  appeals 
to  consist  of  three  judges,  of  whom  two  shall  constitute  a  quorum. 
This  court  shall  have  final  jurisdiction  in  some  classes  of  cases 
on  which  appeals  are  now  allowed  to  the  United  States  Supreme 
court.  (See  Federal  Government,  under  Supreme  Court.) 

Surplus  Easier  to  Handle  Than  a  Deficit.  (See  Sayings 
of  Famous  Americans.) 

Surplus,  The.     (See  Finances,  Government.) 
Swinging  Round  the  Circle.    (See  Slang  of  Politics.) 
Sycamore   of    the    Wabash,   Tall.      (See    Nicknames  of 
Famous  Americans.) 

Tammany.     (See  Political  Parties.) 

Tariff  for  Revenue  Only.—  The  campaign  cry  of  the  tariff 
reformers,  who  while  believing  in  a  tariff  do  not  believe  in  it  as 
a  protection  to  domestic  industries.  They  believe  in  deriving  by 
revenue  from  the  tariff  enough  to  pay  the  expenses  of  the  govern- 
ment economically  administered. 

Tariff  is  a  Local  Issue.  (See  Sayings  of  Famous  Ameri- 
cans.) 


400  TARIFFS   OF   THE    UNITED    STATES. 

Tariff  is  a  Tax.     (See  Sayings  of  Famous  Americans.) 
Tariffs  of  the  United  States. 

Tariff  of  1789.         Compromise  Tariff.     War  Tariff. 
Tariff  of  1812.          Tariff  of  1846.  Mills  Tariff. 

Tariff  of  1857.         McKinley  Tariff.          Morrill  Tariff. 
Lowndes-Calhoun  Tariff.         Tariff  of  Abominations. 
Custom  Houses. 

Article  1,  Section  8,  of  the  Constitution  gives  Congress  the 
right  to  levy  duties  on  imports  as  a  means  of  raising  money  to 
pay  the  debts  of  the  nation  and  to  provide  for  the  common  de- 
fence and  general  welfare.  In  1789,  Congress  passed  a  tariff  bill 
of  which  Alexander  Hamilton  was  the  author,  and  Washington 
approved  it  July  4  of  that  year.  Its  preamble  defined  one  of  its 
objects  to  be  the  "  encouragement  and  protection  of  manufactures." 
This  first  law  imposed  ^pecific  duties  on  forty-seven  articles  and 
ad  valorem  rates  of  7£)  10,  12£,  and  15  per  cent,  on  four  com- 
modities or  small  groups.  The  unenumerated  goods  were  com- 
pelled to  pay  5  per  cent. 

In  1790  and  in  1792,  duties  were  raised  on  unenumerated 
articles  to  7£  per  cent,  and  on  other  articles  5£  to  10  per  cent. 
In  1794,  1797,  1800,  and  1804  there  was  more  modification  of 
the  tariff,  the  average  percentage  being  from  8  to  10  per  cent,  ad 
valorem. 

During  the  War  of  1812,  as  a  Means  of  Deriving  Revenue, 
all  customs  duties  were  doubled.  Another  reason  for  increasing 
the  duties  was  the  demand  of  the  manufacturing  industries  now 
coming  into  prominence,  for  more  protection. 

This  is  known  as  the  "  Tariff  of  1812."  Amendments  to  it 
were  adopted  on  February  25,  and  again  on  July  29,  1813.  On 
February  15,  1816,  the  additional  duties  imposed  by  the  Act  of 
1812  were  repealed,  and  additional  duties  of  42  per  cent.,  to 
take  effect  on  July  1,  were  substituted,  but  the  law  did  not  go 
into  operation.  From  1812  to  1816  the  average  rate  on  all  im- 
ports was  32.73  per  cent.,  the  range  being  from  6.84  per  cent,  in 
1815  to  69.03  in  1813. 

The  next  great  tariff  measure  is  known  as  the  Lowndes- 
Calhoun  bill.  It  was  approved  April  27,  1816,  took  effect  the 
following  July,  and  may  be  said  to  be  the  first  of  the  protective 
tariffs.  It  was  regarded  as  a  Southern  measure,  from  the  fact 
that  the  South  at  the  time  favored  protection,  while  the  North  did 
not.  The  ad  valorem  duties  under  it  ranged  from  7£  to  33  per 
cent.  The  unenumerated  goods  paid  15  per  cent.,  the  manufactures 
of  iron  aud  other  metals  generally  15  per  cent.,  the  majority  of 


TARIFFS    OF    THE    UNITED    STATES. 


401 


402  TAEIFPS   OP   THE    UNITED    STATES. 

woollen  goods  25  per  cent.,  cotton  goods  25  per  cent.,  "with 
clauses  establishing  « rainimums,'  that  is,  in  reckoning  duties, 
23  cents  per  square  yard  was  to  be  deemed  the  minimum  cost  of 
cotton  cloth;  unbleached  and  uncolored  yarn,  60  cents,  and 
bleached  or  colored  yarn,  75  cents  per  pound.  These  rates 
became  practically  prohibitory  on  the  cheaper  goods.  The 
law  wa-i  amended  April  20,  1818,  and  again  on  March  3,  1819. 
From  1817  to  1820  the  average  rate  on  imports  was  26.52  per 
cent.;  from,  1821  to  1824,35.02  per  cent.;  and  from  1821  to 
1824,  on  dutiable  goods  only,  36.88  per  cent.  This  general 
increase  of  duties  was  due  to  the  necessity  of  providing  for  the 
interest  on  the  heavy  debt  incurred  by  the  second  war  with 
England. 

The  Clay  Tariff  followed  in  1824.  The  vote  in  the 
House  was  close  — 107  to  102,  and  the  bill  had  a  majority 
in  the  Senate  of  only  four.  It  was  advocated  by  the  central 
and  western  sections  of  the  country,  and  opposed  by  the 
South  and  New  England.  Iron,  wool,  hemp  and  sugar  were 
protected  ;  the  average  rate  of  duties  was  37  per  cent.  It  was 
in  the  debates  on  this  bill  that  it  was  first  seriously  asserted  that 
Congress  had  no  constitutional  power  to  pass  a  tariff  for  protective 
purposes  only.  This  tariff  remained  in  force  almost  unchanged 
until  1842. 

The  "  Tariff  of  Abominations,"  so  called  by  the  South- 
erners because  it  apparently  operated  against  the  South,  was  ap- 
proved May  19,  1828.  It  was  adopted  at  the  instigation  of  New 
England,  whose  manufactures,  especially  of  woollens,  now  were 
growing.  The  vote  was  105  to  74  in  the  House,  and  in  the  Sen- 
ate 26  to  21.  The  South  and  other  sections  cried  for  lower 
duties,  the  result  of  which  was  the  Tariff  of  1828,  and  the  Modi- 
fying Tariff  of  1832,  the  latter  reducing  the  duty  on  iron  and 
increasing  the  duty  on  woollens.  The  latter  was  apparently  of 
suoh  great  benefit  to  New  England  and  other  sections  that  the 
South  felt  it  was  the  victim  of  discrimination.  Southern  leaders 
had  previously  threatened  Nullification  and  Secession  if  the  Tariff 
of  1828  was  not  repealed,  and  in  November,  1832,  a  State  con- 
vention at  Columbia,  S.  C.,  formally  declared  the  Tariffs  of  1828 
and  1832  "  Null,  Void,  and  No  Law,  nor  binding  on  South 
Carolina,  her  officers  and  citizens,"  made  any  appeal  to  the 
United  States  Supreme  Court  a  punishable  offence,  exacted  an 
oath  of  obedience  to  this  ordinance,  and  warned  the  country  that 
any  attempts  at  force  would  be  followed  by  South  Carolina's 
secession  from  the  Union.  This  was  the  Ordinance  of  Nulli- 
fication as  propounded  for  the  first  time.  (See  Nullification.) 
The  result  was  Henry  Clay's  Compromise  Tariff  of  1833, 


TARIFFS    OF    THE    tTNlTED    STATES.  403 

which  made  gradual  reductions  in  the  duties  to  continue  until 
1842,  after  which  there  should  be  a  uniform  duty  of  20  per  cent. 
From  1834  to  1842,  the  average  duty  on  imports  was  19.25  per 
cent.,  and  on  dutiable  goods,  at  the  home  valuation,  34.73  per 
cent.  This  tariff  so  diminished  the  revenue,  actually  causing  a 
deficit,  and  was  generally  so  unsatisfactory  that  a  new  tariff,  a 
distinctly  protective  measure,  was  passed  by  the  Whigs,  and 
went  into  effect  in  1842.  New  England  and  the  Middle  States 
gave  it  strong  support.  The  South  was  earnest  in  opposition, 
and  the  West  was  a  tie.  The  average  rate  on  all  imports  under 
it  was  2G.92  per  cent.,  and  on  dutiable  articles  33.47  per  cent. 

The  Tariff  of  1846,  known  as  the  Polk- Walker  Tariff,  laid 
down  the  principle  of  a  tariff  for  revenue  only,  and  not  for  pro- 
tection. This  act.  passed  the  House,  114  to  95,  and  the  Senate 
by  the  vote  of  the  presiding  officer,  and  became  a  law.  The 
East  opposed  it,  and  the  South  and  West  favored  it.  It  swept 
away  specific  and  compound  duties  and  divided  all  dutiable  mer- 
chandise into  eight  classes,  which  introduced  greater  simplicity 
into  the  whole  system  of  customs  regulations.  The  average 
duty  on  all  imports  was,  from  1847  to  1857,  23.20  per  cent,  and 
on  dutiable  articles  26.22  per  cent.  It  remained  in  effect  until 
1861,  meantime  having  increased  the  revenue  largely. 

The  Tariff  of  1857  reduced  the  duties  to  an  average  rate  of 
15.66,  and  on  dutiable  goods  to  20.12  per  cent.  The  Morrill 
Tariff  of  1861  was  avowedly  protective,  although  the  revenue 
derived  from  it  was  needed  by  the  government.  The  duties  in 
some  cases  were  actually  prohibitive.  This  tariff  was  frequently 
changed  during  the  war,  for  purposes  of  revenue.  At  one  time 
the  number  of  rates  was  over  two  thousand.  From  1861  to  1869 
every  year  produced  some  enlargement.  In  1870  there  was 
some  modification  of  rates,  generally  in  the  line  of  reduction. 
Tea  and  coffee,  taxed  since  1861,  were  then  put  on  the  free  list, 
and  the  duties  on  sugar,  cotton,  and  woollen  goods,  wool,  iron, 
paper,  glass,  and  leather  were  lowered  about  10  per  cent.  The 
free  list  was  somewhat  enlarged,  but  the  reduction  was  rescinded 
in  the  Act  of  March  3,  1875.  The  duty  on  quinine  was  abolished 
on  July  1,  1879.  The  average  duty  on  all  imports,  from  1862  to 
1883,  was  34.16  per  cent,  and  on  dutiable  articles  42.74  per  cent. 
The  revenue  reformers  and  free-traders  pronounced  this  tariff  a 
"  War  Tariff,"  and  for  upwards  of  fifteen  years  earnest  efforts 
have  been  made  for  a  wholesale  reduction  of  the  duties.  The 
argument  has  been  that  the  system  of  high  tariffs  caused  an 
immense  surplus  to  be  accumulated  in  the  Treasury  which  at 
times  distressed  business,  and  it  was  claimed  put  a  premium  on 
government  extravagance  in  the  way  of  appropriations. 


404  TARIFFS   OF   THE    UNITED    STATES. 

The  result  of  this  agitation  was  that  in  1882  Congress  ap- 
pointed a  Tariff  Commission  to  take  testimony  on  the  subject 
of  protective  tariff  duties  throughout  the  country.  Afterwards 
a  conference  committee,  composed  of  Senators  and  Represen- 
tatives, reported  a  bill  which  became  a  law  March  3,  1883. 
It  made  numerous  reductions,  but  clung  to  the  Principle  of 
Protection  as  a  stimulus  to  commercial  prosperity.  Party  lines 
have  thus  been  drawn  as  between  the  high  protective  tariff  and 
the  tariff  for  revenue  only,  although  the  Republican  claim  is  that 
the  enemies  of  protection  are  free-traders  at  heart. 

In  1888,  the  Mills  Tariff  Bill  passed  the  House.  It  removed 
the  duty  on  wool,  and  made  other  reductions  which  it  was  es- 
timated would  reduce  the  customs  revenue  150,000,000  a  year. 
The  Senate  passed  a  substitute  bill,  repealing  the  tobacco  duty 
and  reducing  that  on  sugar  50  per  cent.,  involving  an  estimated 
reduction  in  customs  revenue  of  $65,000,000  annually.  The 
House  declared  the  substitute  bill  unconstitutional,  and  in  the 
wrangle  both  bills  were  put  aside.  In  1890,  the  McKinley 
Tariff  Bill  became  a  law.  It  placed  duties  on  several  thousand 
articles,  but  enlarged  the  free  list,  admitting  sugar  free,  and  gave 
a  bounty  to  native  sugar  growers.  An  important  feature  was  its 
reciprocity  section  (which  see).  The  Republican  claim  is  that 
the  average  rate  of  duty  is  41  per  cent. 

Custom  Houses  and  Customs  Duties. — By  a  system  of 
indirect  taxation,  the  United  States  Government  raises  annually 
a  large  revenue  from  the  collection  of  customs  duties  levied  on 
goods  imported  from  foreign  countries.  Generally  speaking, 
there  are  two  kinds  of  duty,  specific  and  ad  valorem.  A  specific 
duty  is  the  levying  of  a  specific  amount  which  is  fixed  by  law. 
An  ad  valorem  duty  is  one  which  is  based  on  the  value  of 
imports  in  the  exporting  country,  which  must  be  ascertained. 
There  are  many  thousands  of  articles  imported  upon  which  duties 
are  levied.  The  income  from  duties  since  1789  to  and  including 
1891  have  been  $0,751,086,380.  The  total  amount  is  now  over 
$7,000,000,000.  The  income  from  this  source  in  1891  was 
$219,522,205.  In  round  numbers  the  Income  from  Customs 
Duties  is  over  $200,000,000  annually.  Custom  Houses  for  the 
collection  of  duties  are  situated  at  all  ports  of  entry,  both  on  the 
seacoast  and  the  Great  Lakes,  as  well  as  on  the  northern  and 
southern  frontiers.  The  chief  officer  of  Custom  Houses  is  the 
Collector,  who  is  responsible  to  the  government  for  the  faithful 
collection  of  customs  on  all  dutiable  articles  entering  ports  in 
his  jurisdiction.  In  the  cities  there  are  also  several  deputy  col- 
lectors, besides  appraisers,  gangers,  weighers,  etc. 

Revenue   Marine,  The. — At  all  the  important  ports  of 


TENNESSEE. 


405 


entry,  where  there  is  considerable  business  in  the  collection  of  im- 
port duties,  there  are  one  or  more  revenue  cutters  whose  duty,  as 
imposed  by  act  of  Congress,  is  to  aid  in  the  collection  of  import 
and  tonnage  duties,  and  to  suppress  smuggling.  The  revenue 
cutter's  service  was  inaugurated  in  1790,  and  it  is  therefore  one 
of  the  oldest  departments  of  the  United  States  Government. 
The  service  is  part  of  the  administration  of  the  Treasury  Depart- 
ment, but  its  immediate  supervision  is  in  the  hands  of  subordinate 
officers  who  constitute  the  bureau  known  as  the  Revenue  Marine 
Division.  The  Fleet  of  Revenue  Cutters  in  1891  consisted 
of  thirty-six  vessels ;  all  of  which,  except  two,  are  propelled  by 
steam.  Sixteen  of  these  vessels  are  on  the  Atlantic  and  Gulf 
coasts,  four  are  on  Northern  lakes,  and  four  are  on  the  Pacific 
coast.  Besides  these,  there  are  twenty-four  steamers  which  be- 
long to  the  cruising  fleet,  and  patrol  specified  districts;  ten 
steamers  are  devoted  exclusively  to  the  collection  of  import 
duties.  All  of  the  steamers  carry  from  one  to  four  guns,  and 
their  crews,  usually  eight  officers  and  thirty  to  thirty-five  men, 
carry  small  arms  for  use  in  case  of  emergency.  Besides  their 
duties  in  the  collection  of  customs  duties,  revenue  cutters  assist 
vessels  in  distress,  guard  property  of  wrecked  vessels,  enforce  the 
quarantine  regulations  and  the  laws  governing  the  merchant 
marine,  the  laws  with  regard  to  the  license,  enrollment,  and  regis- 
try of  merchant  vessels,  and  various  other  duties  in  the  interest 
of  public  and  private  business,  and  the  safety  and  welfare  of 
human  lives. 

Tariff    of    Abominations.       (See    Tariffs    of    the    United 

States.) 

Teacher  President.     (See  Presidents  of  the  United  States.) 
Telegraph,  The.      (See  Inventions,  Great  American.) 
Telephone,  The.      (See  Inventions,  Great  American.) 
Tell  Them  to  Obey  the  Laws  and  Support  the  Constitu- 
tion.     (See  Savings  of  Famous  Americans.) 

Tennessee.- — The  State  was  settled  at  Fort  London  in  17G5, 
by  people  from  North  Carolina.  The  Appalachian  Mountains  are 
011  its  eastern  boundary,  while  the  Mississippi  River  forms  the 
western  boundary,  and*  with  the  Tennessee  and  Cumberland 
Rivers  drains  about  three  fourths  of  the  State.  There  are  several 
other  rivers  affording  valuable  water  power. 

The  fertile  Valleys  of  the  Mississippi  and  the  Tennessee 
Rivers  yield  every  variety  of  product  and  feed  vast  herds -of 
animals/  The  Cumberland  plateau,  a  thousand  feet  above  the 
Tennessee  River,  is  rich  in  coal  and  limestone.  The  Tennessee 


406  TENNESSEE. 

Mountains  in  the  eastern  part,  from  5,600  to  6,600  feet  in  height, 
are  covered  with  forests  of  pine,  hemlock,  chestnut,  and  black 
walnut.  The  river  commerce  of  the  State  exceeds  $5,000,000  a 
year  in  lumber,  livestock,  ore,  grain,  and  merchandise. 

Tennessee  stands  next  to  Kentucky  and  Virginia  in  the  raising 
of  Tobacco,  the  average  crop  being  from  25,000,000  to  35,000,- 

000  pounds  a  year.  The  cereals  in- 
clude 70,000,000  bushels  of  corn, 
9,000,000  of  wheat,  7,000,000  of  oats, 
2,500,000  of  potatoes,  and  300,000  tons 
of  hay.  As  many  as  350,000  bales  of 
Cotton  have  been  produced  in  a 
year.  Peanuts  and  berries  in  large 
quantities,  besides  apples,  peaches,  and 
plums  are  raised.  There  are  over 
3,000,000  head  of  livestock.  In  the 
production  of  spirits,  Tennessee  is  the 
leading  State,  a  million  gallons  having 

GREAT    SEAL    OF    TENNESSEE.          been    produced   jn    a    vear. 

The  Iron  industry  has  been  developed  in  the  State  so  that 
to-day  the  output  of  pig-iron  amounts  to  over  500,000  tons  a 
year.  Of  coal  the  State  produced  in  1889,1,925,689  tons;  it 
also  produces  marble,  limestone,  fire-clay,  all  the  granites,  petro- 
leum, magnesia,  and  there  are  numerous  mineral  springs.  The 
State  has  always  been  celebrated  for  the  breeding  of  thorough- 
bred horses,  having  some  of  the  finest  stock-farms  in  the  country. 

There  are  several  universities,  the  best  known  of  which  is  Fisk 
University  at  Nashville,  which  was  founded  in  1866  for  the  edu- 
cation of  the  colored  race,  and  Vanderbilt  University,  at  the  same 
place,  which  is  conducted  by  the  Methodist  Episcopal  Church. 
The  United  States  Government  is  building  a  national  arsenal  at 
Columbia;  and  at  Chattanooga,  Fort  Donelson,  Knoxville,  Shiloh, 
Memphis,  Nashville,  and  Stone's  River  are  National  Ceme- 
teries (see  National  Cemeteries),  where  are  interred  the  remains 
of  upwards  of  50,000  Union  soldiers. 

The  population  of  Tennessee  in  1880  was  1,542,359;  in  1890, 
1,763,723,  of  whom  1,332,971  were  white,  and  434,300  colored. 
The  net  State  debt  was  $14,938,000 ;  the  real  property  was  valued 
at  $211,000,000,  the  personal  property  at  $61,000,000 ;  the  manu- 
factures were  worth  $37,074,886 ;  the  farm  lands  included  20,- 
666,000  acres,  valued  at  $206,749,837 ;  the  farm  products  were 
worth  $70,076,311.  There  were  in  1890  2,751  miles  of  railroad 
and  262  newspapers. 

The  chief  city  is  Nashville,  which,  by  the  census  of  1890, 
had  a  population  of  76,168.  There  are  several  institutions  for 


TENUKE    OF    OFFICE    ACT. 


407 


the  education  of  colored  students  here.  It  is  the  largest  flour 
milling  city  in  the  South,  and  the  first  city  in  the  country  in  the 
manufacture  of  lumber.  There  is  a  capital  of  $90,000,000  in  its 
incorporated  companies.  It  has  a  number  of  fine  public  build- 
ings, over  sixty  churches,  and  is  an  important  railway  centre. 

The  second  city  is  Memphis,  which  had  a  population  in  1890 
of  64,495  ;  it  is  situated  en  the  Mississippi  River  on  a  bluff,  and 
is  the  centre  for  a  large  railway  and  steamboat  business.  It  does 
a  large  wholesale  and  cotton  exporting  business,  and  is  the  site 
of  several  cotton-seed  oil  mills.  It  is  the  centre  of  a  great  lum- 
bering district  in  which  there  are  1,000  lumber  mills.  The  third 
city  is  Chatta- 
nooga, which  had 
a  population  in 
1890  of  '22,100; 
it  is  one  of  the 
rising  cities  of 
the  South,  being 
the  centre  of  a 
large  iron  and 
coal  region.  The 
manufactures  of 
Tennessee  i  n  - 
elude  23  cotton 
mills,  employing 
100,000  s  p  i  n  - 
dies,  and  using  33,000  bales  of  cotton  a  year ;  20  woollen  mills, 
which  use  over  2,000,000  pounds  of  cotton,  and  13  iron  and  steel 
manufactories,  employing  5,000  men.  The  Governor  of  Ten- 
nessee is  John  P.  Buchanan  (Democrat).  His  term  of  office  ex- 
pires Jan.  15,  1 893.  The  State  is  Democratic. 

Tenure  of  Office  Act. —  The  act  which  was  known  by  this 
name  came  into  existence  in  1867,  at  the  time  of  the  contest 
between  President  Johnson  and  Congress  over  the  subject  of 
removals  from  office.  Congress  sought  to  limit  the  President's 
power,  and  passed  a  law  which  Johnson  vetoed,  but  which  was 
passed  over  the  veto,  providing  that  no  officer  subject  to  confir- 
mation by  the  Senate  should  be  removed  without  the  consent  of 
that  body,  but  during  a  recess  of  the  Senate,  the  President  might 
remove  such  officer  and  appoint  a  successor  till  the  end  of  the 
next  session  of  the  Senate.  There  were  about  thirty-five  hundred 
officers  subject  to  the  provisions  of  these  acts,  which  gave  a 
power  to  the  Senate  that  was  not  contemplated  in  the  formation 
of  the  government,  and  increased  its  power  of  rewarding  political 
services.  What  thus  became  known  as  the  "  courtesy  of  the 


COTTON    PACKET    ON    THE   MISSISSIPPI. 


CHEAT     SEAL    OF    TEXAS. 


408  KXAS- 

Senate  "  was  merely  a  polite  phrase  which  expressed  the  power 
of  patronage  vested  in  the  Senate,  and  which  allotted  to  the 
Senators  from  each  State  the  control  of  the  Federal  offices  in  it. 
The  Tenure  of  Office  Act  was  repealed  in  1887.  (For  Presiden- 
tial Term  see  Presidents  of  the  United  States.) 

Texas. — The  original  settlers  of  Texas  were  Spaniards  who 
established  a  mission  at  San  Antonio, 
in  1690.  Texas  was  admitted  to  the 
United  States  in  1845.  It  fought  for 
and  secured  its  independence  of  Mex- 
ico, and  in  1837  it  was  acknowledged 
as  a  republic  by  France  and  by  the 
United  States  in  1839.  It  maintained 
its  national  existence  for  ten  years, 
and  then  joined  the  United  States. 
The  development  of  the  State  since 
then  has  been  no  less  wonderful  than 
that  of  California.  The  immigration 
has  been  larger  in  Texas,  and  more 
capital  has  been  invested  here  than  in 
any  other  one  State  west  of  the  Mississippi. 

It  is  in  area  the  Largest  State  in  the  Union,  being  four 
times  as  large  as  New  England,  six  times  as  large  as  New  York 
State,  and  seven  times  as  large  as  Ohio.  The  Rio  Grande  River 
forms  the  western  boundary,  and  the  other  chief  rivers  are  the 
Brazos,  the  Colorado,  the  Guadalupe,  and  the  San  Antonio.  East- 
ern Texas  produces  iron,  timber,  sugar,  tobacco,  and  fruits,  and 
has  valuable  stock-farms. 

There  is  a  vast  area  of  Farm  Lands  in  the  centre  of  the 
State,  while  northern  Texas  is  especially  rich  in  cotton  and 
wheat.  Western  Texas  is  the  region  of  immense  Cattle- 
Ranges.  The  Pan  Handle  is  a  great  plateau  covering  27,000 
square  miles  in  the  southwestern  part  of  the  State,  where  the 
State  sells  land  to  the  settlers.  The  Staked  Plains  are  a  portion 
of  the  Pan  Handle  region,  and  afford  pasture  to  large  herds  of 
cattle. 

The  Agricultural  Products  of  Texas  have  an  almost  end- 
less variety.  Of  Cotton,  in  the  production  of  which  Texas  is 
the  first  State,  it  has  produced  more  than  1,200,000  bales  a  year, 
and  the  product  is  worth  $50,000,000  a  year.  The  product  of 
Cotton-Seed  is  over  500,000  tons  a  year;  of  wheat  5,000,000 
bushels,  of  corn  25,000,000  bushels,  of  oats  15,000,000  bushels. 
There  are  over  8,000,000  acres  of  Texas  lands  under  cultivation, 
cut  up  into .  40,000  farms,  producing  yearly  about  $80,000,000 


TEXAS.  409 

worth  of  hay.  Sugar-cane,  grapes,  peaches,  and  bananas  are 
produced  in  large  quantities.  There  are  sugar-plantations  of  the 
Brazos  River  which  produce  yearly  over  10,000,000  pounds  of 
sugar. 

It  is  estimated  that  Texas  has  above  3,000,000  cattle ;  the 
sales  for  a  single  year  average  from  1,200,000  head  to  1,500,000 
head.  Of  sheep,  in  1891,  Texas  had  4,990,000,  more  than  any 
other  State.  Of  wool,  the  product  amounts  to  '25,000,000  pounds 
a  year,  valued  at  $7,000,000.  The  manufactures  of  Texas  num- 
ber over  3,000,  and  employ  18,000  persons.  The  manufactur- 
ing product  is  upwards  of  $40,000,000  worth  of  goods. 

The  United  States  Army  has  headquarters  in  San  An- 
tonio, where  there  is  also  an  arsenal  which  covers  twenty  acres. 
In  this  Department  of  the  Army  there  are  ten  military  posts, 
having  upwards  of  two  thousand  soldiers,  covering  the  Mexican 
and  Indian  Territory  frontiers.  The  forts  are  Fort  Clarke,  Fort 
Hancock,  Fort  Concho,  Camp  Peiia  Colorado,  Fort  Ringgold, 
Fort  Mclntosh,  Fort  Bliss,  Fort  Brown,  and  Fort  Elliott. 

The  State  supports  a  School  Fund  in  bonds  and  lands 
estimated  at  $100,000,000.  There  are  eleven  colleges  and  higher 
institutions  of  learning  in  the  State,  having  3,254  students.  All 
the  public  schools  are  open  to  white  and  black  children  alike,  and 
there  is  one  normal  school  for  colored  students  which  is  supported 
by  the  State. 

The  population  of  Texas  in  1880  was  1,591,749 ;  in  1890  it  was 
2,235,523  ;  the  white  population  is  about  75  per  cent,  of  the 
whole.  The  real  property  was  valued  at  $348,000,000  ;  the  per- 
sonal property  at  $214,000,000.  The  acreage  of  farm  lands  was 
36,303,454,  valued  at  $170,468,886 ;  in  1890  there  were  8,613 
miles  of  railroads  and  542  newspapers. 

The  chief  city  of  Texas  is  Galveston,  situated  on  the  Gulf 
of  Mexico  ;  it  has  a  beach  extending  over  thirty  miles.  It  is  the 
third  cotton-exporting  point  in  the  United  States,  exporting 
700,000  bales  a  year.  Steamships  run  to  the  Northern  ports 
carrying  cotton,  cotton-seed,  wool,  lumber,  and  hides.  The 
population  of  Galveston  in  1890  was  29,084. 

Dallas  is  the  first  city  in  point  of  population,  and  is  situated 
in  the  prairie  region  of  northern  Texas,  of  which  it  is  the  com- 
mercial and  railway  centre,  being  surrounded  by  a  rich  and 
productive  agricultural  region.  It  has  a  general  trade  of 
$25,000,000  a  year,  120  factories,  and  sells  more  agricultural  im- 
plements than  any  city  of  the  South.  The  population  in  1890 
was  38,067. 

San  Antonio,  the  second  city  in  population,  is  the  foremost 
wool  market  of  Texas,  handling  in  a  year,  sometimes,  15,000,000 


410 


THEATRES. 


pounds.  There  is  a  large  business  here  in  horses  and  mules,  and 
large  quantities  of  hops  and  grain  pass  through  here  bound  for 
Mexico.  Houston  is  the  centre  for  a  dozen  railways  which 
transport  the  products  of  a  fertile  and  prosperous  contiguous 
country.  It  has  immense  machine  shops,  car  works,  cotton-seed 
oil  mills,  and  had  a  population  in  1890  of  27,551.  In  1890  it  re- 
ceived $20,000,000  of  the  cotton  crop  of  the  State,  loading  the 
crop  onto  vessels  for  export,  besides  3,000,000  gallons  of  cotton- 
oil,  12,000,000  pounds  of  sugar,  and  1,000,000  gallons  of  syrup. 
It  also  did  a  large  business  in  lumber  and  shingles.  Austin  is  the 
capital,  and  in  1890  had  14,476  inhabitants.  The  State  capital 
building  here  is  a  magnificent  structure,  the  largest  capitol  in  the 


A    TEXAS    CATTLE    RANCH. 


country.  It  has  a  dome  311  feet  high,  supporting  a  statue  of  the 
Goddess  of  Liberty.  The  cost  to"build  was  $3,500,000.  The 
Governor  of  Texas  is  James  S.  Hogg  (Democrat).  His  term  ex- 
pires Jan.  9,  1893.  The  State  is  Democratic. 

Theatres.  —  The  first  theatre  in  America  was  at  Williams- 
burg,  Va.,  opened  on  Sept.  5,  1772.  Others  were  opened  after- 
wards at  Annapolis,  Md.,  at  New  York  (1753),  Albany  (1769), 
Baltimore  (1773),  Charleston,  S.  C.  (1774),  and  Boston  (1792). 
The  growth  of  large  cities,  which  up  to  1840  had  not  been 


THIRD    TERM.  411 

marked,  fed  to  the  building  of  theatres,  in  consequence  of  the 
demand  for  evening  entertainment.  While  in  the  United  States 
there  are  no  theatres  or  public  buildings  capable  of  seating  as 
many  people  as  several  in  Europe,  a  tendency  is  apparent  toward 
the  construction  of  places  of  public  entertainment  of  immense 
seating  capacities.  The  two  latest  examples  are  the  Auditorium 
Building  at  Chicago,  which  seats  10,000  people,  and  the  Madison 
Square  Garden  at  New  York,  whose  seating  capacity  is  8,443. 
Other  large  theatres  in  this  country,  with  their  seating  capacities, 
are  Music  Hall,  at  Cincinnati  (4,824),  Mechanics  Hall,  at  Boston 
(3,500),  Washington  Hall,  at  Paterson,  N.  J.  (3,000),  Boston 
Theatre,  at  Boston  (2,972),  Academy  of  Music,  at  Philadelphia 
(2,865),  Music  Hall,  at  Boston  (2,585),  Academy  of  Music,  at 
New  York  (2,526),  Cooper  Union,  at  New  York  (2,500),  Acad- 
emy of  Music,  at  Brooklyn,  N.  Y.  (2,450),  Opera  House,  at  New 
Haven,  Conn.  (2,500),  Mobile  Theatre,  at  Mobile,  Ala.  (2,500), 
Chestnut  Street  Theatre,  at  Philadelphia  (2,380),  etc.  There  are 
upwards  of  75  other  theatres  in  the  large  cities  capable  of  seating 
1,500  and  over. 

Third  Term. — The  Stalwart  faction  of  the  Republican  party 
in  1 880  went  to  the  Republican  National  Convention  300  strong, 
in  favor  of  the  nomination  of  ex-President  Grant  for  President. 
Grant  had  already  been  President  two  terms,  1869  to  1877. 
There  was  a  widely  prevailing  prejudice  against  the  third  term 
idea  ;  Washington  had  declined  a  third  term,  and  the  opponents 
of  one-man  power  raised  a  loud  hue  and  cry,  which  was  not  with- 
out effect.  Yet  the  Grant  faction  developed  remarkable  strength, 
and  at  the  convention  (see  Presidential  Conventions  Under  How 
the  President  Is  Elected)  voted  as  one  man.  They  were  under 
the  leadership  of  Roscoe  Conkling.  The  contest  in  the  conven- 
tion was  a  memorable  one,  and  it  was  not  until  over  thirty-six 
ballots  had  been  cast  that  it  appeared  that  Grant  was  defeated. 
The  winner  was  James  A.  Garfield,  who  had  been  a  dark  horse. 
In  commemoration  of  their  noble  stand  for  Grant,  medals  were 
presented  to  the  delegates.  They  are  sometimes  spoken  of  as 
the  «  Grant  306,"  or  as  the  Stalwart  306. 

Thomas  Jefferson  Still  Survives.  (See  Sayings  of  Famous 
Americans.) 

Tidal  Wave.     (See  Slang  of  Politics.) 

Timber  Culture  Laws.  (See  Public  Lands  and  Land 
Grants.) 

Time  Balls,  Time  of  Noon,  Time  Divisions,  etc.     (Sec 

Standard  Time.) 


412 


TORCHLIGHT    PROCESSIONS. 


Tippecanoe.     (See  Presidents  of  the  United  States.) 
Title   of   the   President.     (See    Presidents   of  the   United 
States.) 

Tobacco,  Production  of.     (See  Agriculture.) 
Torchlight  Processions. 

Wide  Awakes.  Plumed  Knights. 

Caps,  Capes,  and  Torches.       Bandannas. 
Flags.  Transparencies. 

Great  Parades. 

.There  is  no  record  of  the  first  political  parade.  Ever  since 
the  formation  of  the  Union,  parades  have  been  held  in  the  large 
cities  during  the  canvass.  These  demonstra- 
tions by  the  voters  of  loyalty  to  their  candidate 
did  not  assume  extensive  proportions  until  the 
Log  Cabin  and  Hard  Cider  campaign  of 
1840,  when  the  temper  of  the  Whig  voters,  in- 
duced by  the  pronounced  personal  element  upon 
which  the  campaign  was  fought  and  won,  was 
in  keeping  with  the  spirit  which  prompts  men 
to  attest  in  public  their  devotion  to  a  man  or  a 
principle.  In  this  animated  contest  for  the 
Presidency,  the  Whigs  paraded,  and  repro- 
duced on  transparencies,  held  aloft  in  the  pro- 
cession,  such  familiar  party  catchwords  as 
" Fifty-Four-Forty  or  Fight"  (which  see), 
"  Free  Trade  and  Sailor's  Rights,"  etc.  From 
this  time  until  1860,  bonfires  and  window 
illuminations  of  houses  constituted  the  principal 
street  shows,  and  -although  torches  were  used 
little  or  no  attempt  was  made  toward  uniform- 
ing the  marching  clubs. 

In  I860  the  Republicans  formed  marching 
clubs  called  "  Wide-Awakes,"  and  adopted 
a  uniform  consisting  of  a  cape  and  cap  of  enamelled  cloth. 
Since  that  campaign  the  ingenuity  of  American  clothiers  has 
been  taxed  to  the  utmost  to  provide  new  designs  for  uniforms 
at  a  moderate  price.  In  the  processions  of  1860  the  "Wide 
Awakes "  largely  monopolized  the  uniforms  —  the  opposing 
parties  contenting  themselves  generally  with  the  ordinary  citi- 
zen's dress,  and  the  use  of  transparencies  and  torches ;  the 
Bell- Everett  battalions  carrying  with  them  an  immense  bell 
mounted  on  a  truck.  In  1864,  General  McClellan  being  the 
Democratic  candidate,  the  uniforms  began  to  assume  a  military 


A  TOKCH-UEAREK. 


TORCHLIGHT    PROCESSIONS.  413 

character,  although  the  Cap,  Cape,  and  Torch  was  still  the 
favorite.  By  the  use  of  colored  enamelled  cloths,  a  pleasing 
effect  was  produced  in  this  campaign.  The  recollections  of 
former  tramps  through  the  muddy  highways  brought  forward  the 
"  leggings "  now  very  generally  used.  In  ]  868  the  uniforms 
were  largely  military ;  the  Zouave  style,  from  its  extremely  showy 
character,  its  natty  cap  and  white  or  colored  leggings,  was  largely 
used  and  added  greatly  to  the  attractive  appearance  of  the  great 
processions.  The  campaign  of  1872,  the  Greeley  campaign,  being 
comparatively  spiritless,  showed  very  few  new  designs  in  uniforms, 
but  in  1876,  when  the  Democrats  were  on  their  mettle,  the  cam- 
paign uniforms  were  distinguished  for  their  variety  and  elaborate- 
ness. Caps  and  capes  still  held  the  popular  fancy  where  economy 
was  the  principal  motive,  but  Blouses,  Zouave  Jackets  and 
Trousers,  and  Continental  Suits,  and  many  other  expensive 
and  unique  designs  were  worn.  The  "  Sinclair  Cadets "  of 
Portsmouth,  N.  H.,  for  example,  adopted  a  long  Spanish  cloak 
of  dark  cloth  lined  with  white,  sombrero  hats  and  long  leggings 
of  enamel.  Torches  were  mounted  on  guns,  and  the  changes  in 
styles  and  designs  were  almost  numberless. 

The  campaign  of  1880  brought  out  few  new  features,  but  in 
1884  the  Plumed  Knight  uniforms  had  the  call.  They  were 
made  of  silvered  and  gilt  enamels,  and  had  an  extremely  impres- 
sive, character.  Helmets  were  made  of  nickeled  metal,  the  aim 
evidently  being  to  catch  and  reflect  the  light  of  the  torches.  The 
spectacular  effect  was  excellent.  In  1888  the  Bandanna 
was  made  a  special  feature  by  the  Democrats,  the  Republicans 
adopting  the  American  flag,  and  these  articles  were  combined 
into  a  thousand  and  one  devices  for  street  parades.  Coats 
had  a  bandanna  or  a  flag  collar ;  canes  were  made  which  con- 
cealed one  or  the  other ;  hat-bands,  badges,  and  a  thousand 
other  articles  were  used  to  display  the  party  colors. 

Badges  from  the  common  penny  article  for  Young  America 
to  elaborate  gold  plated  and  enameled  jewels  are  very  generally 
worn  during  every  political  campaign.  In  1888  the  "  flag  or  the 
bandanna"  in  a  button  or  small  badge  was  worn  literally  by 
millions.  In  recent  years  Fireworks  have  almost  entirely 
taken  the  place  of  the  bonfires  of  former  days  as  a  means  of 
illumination.  In  1840  balls  of  cotton  tied  tightly  and  soaked 
with  alcohol  were  tossed  from  hand  to  hand,  fireworks  as  known 
to-day  being  rather  expensive.  To-day  every  grand  procession 
marches  with  wagons  loaded  with  pyrotechnics  and  the  streets 
blaze  and  glow  with  colored  fires.  Another  feature  of  political 
campaigns  which  has  long  been  in  vogue  is  Flag-Raising. 
As  soon  as  the  nominating  conventions  complete  their  labors, 


414  TORCHLIGHT    1'HOCKSSIONS. 

flag-raising  begins  and  the  display  of  bunting  becomes  a  marked 
feature  of  the  streets  in  all  the  cities  and  towns.  What  with 
the  cheap  cotton  flags  costing  a  few  cents  to  the  huge  banners 
with  portraits  and  mottoes  costing  large  sums,  the  display  is 
almost  universal,  nearly  every  club  and  headquarters  and  many 
newspapers  displaying  the  Star-Spangled  Banner  with  their  can- 
didates' names  attached. 

Another  and  a  more  beautiful  method  of  showing  party  fealty 
is  in  Illuminations,  which  are  generally  made  with  paper 
lanterns,  sometimes  of  the  most  elaborate  and  costly  materials. 
Up  to  1860  these  lanterns  were  almost  entirely  imported  from 
Paris,  Germany,  or  Japan,  but  since  then  American  ingenuity  and 
labor-saving  machinery  have  revolutionized  the  prices  so  that 
lanterns  that  in  1860  were  considered  cheap  at  twenty-five  cents 
apiece  can  now  be  bought  at  five  cents.  Torches  are,  of  course, 
a  necessity  in  an  evening  parade,  but  apart  from  the  Flambeaus, 
with  their  sudden  and  immense  columns  and  flashes  of  flame 
(caused  by  lycopodium  powder),  and  the  colored  glass  lanterns 
occasionally  used,  torches  have  been  pretty  much  alike  in  all  the 
campaigns.  Plundreds  of  patterns  are  produced,  but  as  all  cats 
are  black  in  a  dark  room,  so  all  torches  are  alike  when  viewed  in 
a  procession.  The  diversity  in  marching  illuminations  is  chiefly 
in  transparencies,  in  which  the  variety  in  si/e,  shape,  color,  and 
mottoes  is  absolutely  boundless. 

Notable  Parades.  —  The  largest  political  parades  have  been 
those  in  Presidential  campaigns  in  New  York  City,  a  few  days 
before  the  election.  Both  parties  have  a  parade  of  their  voters, 
within  a  night  or  two  of  each  other.  The  Saturday  night  before 
the  election  is  usually  chosen  by  one  or  the  other  party,  the 
choice  depending  upon  which  of  them  first  applies  for  per- 
mission of  the  city  authorities.  Large  sums  of  money  are  sup- 
plied by  the  campaign  committees,  for  equipping  the  clubs  with 
uniforms,  torches,  banners,  transparencies,  etc.,  and  for  fitting 
illuminations  along  the  line  of  march.  When  the  uniforms  are 
attractively  gotten  up,  the  spectacle  is  a  grand  one.  The  line  of 
march  almost  invariably  is  up  or  down  New  York's  aristocratic 
street,  Fifth  Avenue,  and  thence  into  Broadway.  It  is  customary 
to  inscribe  the  banners  and  transparencies  with  mottoes  expressive 
of  the  issues  of  the  campaign,  and  the  ingenuity  and  wit  of  the 
campaign  managers  are  at  such  times  put  severely  to  the  test  in 
devising  effective  catch-words  and  phrases. 

On  Thursday  night,  November  2,  1876,  the  Democratic  voters 
of  New  York  and  vicinity  paraded  to  the  number  of  twenty-five 
thousand  or  more.  Among  the  mottoes  on  transparencies  were 
the  following :  — 


TOKCHLIGHT    PROCESSIONS. 


415 


"  Grand  Old  Tammany  :  the  Democratic  Fortress." 
"Equal  rights  for  Foreign-Born  and  Native-Born  Citizens." 
"  Reform  is  necessary  to  put  a  stop  to  the  profligate  waste  of 
public  hands."  «  Tilden  and  Reform."  "  Reform  is  necessary 
in  the  civil  service."  "  Grantism  means  poor  people  made 
poorer."  "  No  Bayonet  Rule."  "  We  demand  that  our  custom- 
house taxation  shall  be  for  revenue  only."  "We  demand  a 
rigorous  frugality  in  every  department  of  the  government." 
"  Reform  is  necessary  to  establish  a  sound  currency."  "  The 
Democratic  Party  stands  now  as  it  always  has  stood,  for  the 
Freedom  of  Cuba."  (Cuba  at  the  time  was  trying  to  secure  its 


UNION  SQUARE,  NEW  YORK. 

independence.)  "  Tammany  welcomes  the  brave  Cubans."  "  Let 
every  son  and  friend  of  Cuba  vote  next  Tuesday  for  Tilden  and 
Hendricks."  "  No  Sectional  Hate,  no  Sectarian  Strife."  "  Repub- 
licans as  a  diseased  and  corrupt  party  are  hurled  from  Power." 
"  Tilden,  Hendricks,  and  Reform."  "  Democracy,  the  last  refuge 
of  personal  and  political  rights,  will  give  us  back  the'  ancient 
purity  of  government."  "  Let  us  have  a  clean  sweep."  "  Ballots 
Not  Bayonets."  "  Our  Union  Forever."  "  Victory!  "  "  We 
will  save  the  Nation."  "  Fifty  thousand  majority  for  Tilden." 
"  In  Unity  is  Strength."  "  No  Thieves  in  Office."  "  No  more 
Whiskey  Rings."  "  Let  no  guilty  man  escape  —  U.  S.  G," 


416  TORCIILKiHT    PROCESSIONS. 

"  Reform  in  the  Civil  Service."     Pictures  of  Tilden  bore  the  titles, 
«  Our  Uncle  Samuel  "  and  the  "  Noblest  Roman  of  Them  All." 

On  Saturday  night  of  the  same  week  the  Republicans  paraded, 
led  by  columns  of  "  Boys  in  Blue,"  numbering  9,000,  accompanied 
by  other  local  organizations  which  swelled  the  total  to  20,000 
men.  The  only  emblem  displayed  was  the  "  Ship  of  State,"  a 
small  vessel  with  sails  set,  drawn  upon  a  wagon. 

The  Republicans  on  the  night  of  October  11,  1880,  held  one  of 
the  largest  parades  New  York  had  ever  seen.  Between  forty 
and  fifty  thousand  men  were  in  line.  Grant  was  on  the  review- 
ing stand  in  Madison  Square.  Beneath  Grant's  portrait  on  a 
transparency,  "Our  Guest"  was  inscribed,  and  "Our  Next 
President "  on  a  transparency  illuminating  the  face  of  Garfield. 
One  of  the  banners  bore  this  inscription:  "  Irish- American 
Republican  Association  of  American  Citizens :  We  know  our 
rights  and  dare  to  maintain  them  " ;  on  the  reverse  side  was 
"  No  Free  Trade."  Other  mottoes  were  :  "  No  man  can  afford 
to  be  lukewarm."  "Push  Things.  U.  S.  G.  "  "Welcome, 
Grant."  "  Welcome  to  the  Nation's  Hero."  "  We  vote  as  our 
Fathers  fought."  "  It  is  a  cold  day  when  Democratic  boasting 
can  scare  us."  "  Garfield  —  born  of  the  people,  educated  in 
adversity  —  the  President  of  the  People." 

On  Thursday  afternoon,  October  30,  1884,  the  Republican 
Business  Men  of  New  York  paraded  on  Broadway,  marching 
from  the  Battery  to  Madison  Square,  a  distance  of  nearly  four 
miles.  This  and  the  parade  of  the  Democratic  business  men  a 
day  or  two  later  were  the  most  impressive  political  demonstra- 
tions New  York  had  ever  witnessed.  The  bitter  personal  char- 
acter of  the  campaign,  and  the  peculiar  political  conditions  of  the 
time,  had  aroused  the  keenest  excitement.  In  this  parade  of  the 
Republican  business  men,  of  whom  there  were  25,000,  there  was 
no  •  music,  nor  even  the  beat  of  drums,  the  absence  of  which 
made  the  spectacle  all  the  more  imposing.  The  solid  phalanxes 
of  bankers,  brokers,  merchants,  lawyers,  tradesmen,  clerks,  and 
students,  marched  with  arms  locked,  in  the  midst  of  a  drizzling 
rain,  occupying  five  hours  in  passing  the  grand  stand  at  Madison 
Square.  The  various  branches  of  the  commercial  life  of  the 
metropolis  marched  together.  All  of  them  kept  time  to  the 
watchwords,  shouted  with  emphasis  clear  and  strong,  "Blaine- 
Blaine  —  James  G.  Elaine."  Ohio  in  the  October  election 
having  gone  Republican,  another  cry  was,  "  O-O-O-hi-O."  An- 
other was,  "  As-we-shout-so-we-vote."  An  original  feature  of 
the  parade  was  the  singing  by  the  paraders  of  "  Glory,  Glory, 
Hallelujah,"  and  the  songs  of  the  Columbia  College  students,  to 
the  tune  of  "  Balm  of  Gilead,"  as  follows  :  — 


TORCHLIGHT   PROCESSIONS.  417 

"  Here's  to  James  G.  Elaine, 

He  won' t  go  down, 
He's  a  bully  boy  from  Maine, 
He  won't  go  down,  down,  down." 

Another  cry  was  "  No-No-No-Free-Trade." 

On  Saturday  night,  November  1,  1884,  nearly  fifty  thousand 
Republicans  paraded  in  the  metropolis,— keeping  step  to  the 
cry  "Elaine,  Elaine,  Elaine  — James  G.  Elaine,"  or  to  « Elaine 
Elaine,  Elaine  —  Hurrah,  hurrah,  hurrah  !  "  At  times  this  was 
changed  to  "  Hurrah  —  Hurrah  —  for  James  —  G.—  Elaine.  He 
is  free  from  any  stain,  James  G.  Elaine."  The  Irish- American 

Elaine   men    carried   a    transparency    inscribed    as   follows: • 

"  Skools  and  eddication  is  the   cuss  of  the  Demokracy."     Other 
mottoes  were    these:  — « No   Free   Trade."      « Protect    Home 


FEDERAL    CAPITOL    IN    1861,    RICHMOND,    VA. 

Industries."  "  Preserve  Home  Industries."  "  Three  Times  Three 
for  Ohio."  "Now  for  New  York."  "Push  Things."  "We 
legislate  for  the  People  of  the  United  States ;  not  for  the  whole 
world  —  James  A.  Garfield."  "  The  Republican  Party  :  the  log- 
book of  this  voyage  cannot  be  too  often  read."  "  No  Free 
Trade;  we  know  what  is."  "  329  x  Mulligan  Letters  = 
Zero."  "  Look  at  what  $1.00  will  buy  in  the  United  States 
an  (^England."  "  A  vote  for  Cleveland  is  a  vote  to  enslave  the 
laboring  man."  "  Tell  John  Bull  he  can't  make  American  laws." 
"  We  want  American,  not  English  legislation."  "  No  Free 


418 


TREASON. 


Ships."  "  No  One  Dollar  a  day."  "  Grover,  you  will  be  left." 
"  The  British  Lion  cannot  arrest  the  flight  of  the  American 
Bird."  "  Destruction  to  American  Industries  is  England's  oppor- 
tunity." "  Protection  is  Prosperity.  Free  Trade  is  Beggary." 
"  We  have  broken  the  brass  collar  of  Party  Slavery  Forever." 
"For  Union  and  Justice:  Rifles  and  Leaden  Bullets  in  1864. 
Torches  and  Republican  Ballots  in  1884."  "  Our  Friends  —  the 
enemy — Push  them,  Boys."  "Blaine  and  Victory."  "Dinna 
ye  hear  the  slogan,  Jimmy  Blaine  and  Johnny  Logan !  "  "  Down 
with  Free  Trade."  "  Labor  is  King."  "  Protection  For  Ameri- 
can Citizens."  "  We  vote  as  we  fought."  "  Our  Friends,  the 
•Enemy :  We  propose  to  move  at  once  upon  their  works." 

Forty  thousand  Republicans  paraded  in  New  York  on  November 
3,  1888.  On  the  banners,  flags,  and  transparencies  were  dis- 
played such  mottoes  as  these  :  "  Give  us  a  President  in  favor  of 
American  Shipping."  "  We  want  the  American  flag  to  be  seen  in 
every  foreign  port."  "  Protection  to  American  Shipping."  "  Amer- 
ican Ships  and  American  Wages."  "  Protection  —  Harrison  and 
Morton."  "  Home  Rule  for  Ireland."  "  Take  the  tax  off 
tobacco."  "  Down  with  direct  taxes."  "  Hurra  for  cent  post- 
age." From  time  to  time  those  in  line  sang  a  song  the  refrain  of 
which  was  "  Good-bye,  my  Grover,  Good  bye  " —  or  kept  time  to 
the  couplet : 

"  Grover,  Grover,  take  a  rest; 
Your  goose  is  cooked  by  Sackville  West." 

Towns,  Government  of.  (See  States,  Cities,  etc.,  Govern- 
ment of.) 

Trading.     (See  Slang  of  Politics.) 

Treason. — Under  the  Constitution,  Article  3,  Section  3, 
treason  against  the  United  States  shall  consist  only  in  levying 
war  against  them,  or  in  adhering  to  their  enemies,  giving  them 
aid  and  comfort.  No  person  shall  be  convicted  of  treason  unless 
on  the  testimony  of  two  witnesses  to  the  same  overt  act,  or  on 
confession  in  open  court.  The  Congress  shall  have  power  to  de- 
clare the  punishment  of  treason,  but  no  attainder  of  treason  shall 
work  corruption  of  blood  or  forfeiture,  except  during  the  life  of 
the  person  attained. 

Treasury  Department.      (See  Federal  Government.) 

Tree  Planting.      (See  Forestry.) 

Twist  the  British  Lion's  Tail,  To. — This  is  a  favorite  way 
of  expressing  the  tendency  of  some  orators  usually  Irish  or 
friends  of  Ireland,  of  abusing  Great  Britain.  Frequently  "this 
abuse  is  for  political  effect  upon  the  Irish  vote.  The  late  "  Riche- 


UNCLE    SAM. 


419 


lieu"  Robinson  was  celebrated  when  in  Congress  for  his 
speeches  of  this  character,  although  he  was  a  native-born  Irish- 
man, and  believed  everything  that  he  said  of  Great  Britain's  ill- 
treatment  of  his  native  land. 

Uncle  Abe.     (See  Presidents  of  the  United  States.) 
Uncle  Jerry.     (See  Nicknames  of  Famous  Americans.) 
Uncle  Sam.     (See  Presidents  of  the  United  States.) 

Uncle  Sam. — Elbert  Anderson,  a  New  York  contractor,  in 
1812,  visited  Troy,  N.  Y.,  and  bought  a  quantity  of  provisions. 
The  government  inspector,  Samuel  Wilson,  was  known  in  the 
neighborhood  as  "Uncle  Sam."  Anderson's  goods  were  labelled 
"  E.  A. — U.  S."  The  latter  abbreviation  was  quickly  translated 
into  "  Uncle  Sam,"  as  a  bit  of  facetiousness  at  Wilson's  expense. 
In  that  way  Uncle  Sam  came  to  be  synonymous  with  Brother 
Jonathan,  both  being  typical  of  the  imaginary  personage  who  is 
inseparably  connected  with  the  destinies  of  the  country. 

Unconditional  Surrender.  (See  Presidents  of  the  United 
States.) 

Uncrowned  King.  (See  Nicknames  of  Famous  Americans.) 
Underground  Railroad. —  This  was  the  name  of  an  organ- 
ized system  of  aiding  fugitive  slaves  to  Canada,  where  they 
would  be  safe.  Those  who  were  prominently  engaged  in  secret- 
ing the  fugitives  did  so  at  great  personal  risk,  and  arrest  and  im- 
prisonment was  of  frequent  occurrence.  The  president  of  the 
"  railroad "  was  Levi  Coffin,  who  it  is  estimated  aided  in  the 
escape  of  over  twenty-five  hundred  slaves. 

Uniformed  Soldier.     (See  Presidents  of  the  United  States.)  • 
Union  Jack.     (See  Flags  of  the  United  States.) 
Union  Labor  Party.     (See  Political  Parties.) 
Union  Must  be  Preserved.     (See  Sayings  of  Famous  Amer- 
icans.) 

Union  Safeguard.     (See  Presidents  of  the  United  States.) 
Unit  Rule. —  It  is  the  practice  of  Democratic  National  Con- 
ventions to  determine  the  vote  of  a  State  delegation  by  the  vote 
of  a  majority  of  the  delegation.     This  practice  is  known  as  the 
unit  rule.     When  the  majority  of  the  New  York  delegation  at 
the  Democratic  National  Convention  of  1884  voted  in  favor  of 
Cleveland's  nomination,  the  minority  made  a  vigorous  attempt 
to  break  the  unit  rule,  but  the  leadership  of  Daniel  Manning  pre- 
vented this  result,  and  Cleveland's  nomination  was  assured. 
United  Labor  Party.     (See  Political  Parties.) 


420 


UTAH. 


United  States  Army.       (See  Army,  The  United  States.) 

United  States  Mints.      (See  Coinage,  etc.) 

United  States  Navy.      (See  Navy,  The  United  States.) 

United  Workmen,  Ancient  Order  of.  (See  Secret 
Societies.) 

Unprecedented  Strategist.  (See  Presidents  of  the  United 
States.) 

Unquestionably  Skilled.  (See  Presidents  of  the  United 
States.) 

Utah. —  The  first  persons  to  visit  that  section  of  the  United 
States  now  known  as  Utah  Territory  were  a  party  of  Spaniards 
under  Captain  Cardenas  in  1540.  In  1847  a  permanent  settle- 
ment was  established  by  Brigham  Young  and  a  small  party  of 
pioneers,  who  preceded  a  religious  sect,  the  Mormons,  who 
had  been  expelled  from  Illinois.  These  located  at  Salt  Lake 
City.  Year  after  year  brought  new  acquisitions  of  religious 
enthusiasts,  and  finally  a  large  and  powerful  community  arose. 
In  1850,  Utah,  originally  a  portion  of  the  Mexican  concession  of 
1848,  was  organized  as  a  Territory,  containing  84,970  square  miles, 
and  bounded  by  Wyoming,  Colorado,  Arizona,  Nevada,  and 
Idaho.  The  average  height  of  this  Territory  is  6,100  feet  above 
the  level  of  the  sea,  while  over  five  thousand  square  miles  lie 
four  thousand  feet  higher.  It  is  traversed  from  North  to  South 
by  the  Wasatch  Mountains,  and  a  portion  of  the  Territory  forms 
a  part  of  the  Great  American  Desert. 

Great  Salt  Lake,  which  is  within  its  borders,  once  covered  an 
area  of  42,000  square  miles,  varying  from  1,700  square  miles  in 
1849  to  2,360  square  miles  in  1870,  since  which  time  it  has  dimin- 
ished. In  1880  the  population  of  the  Territory  was  143,963  ;  in 
1890,  it  was  207,905.  Owing  to  the  polygamous  habits  of  many 
of  the  people  these  have  been  disfranchised,  and  Utah's  admit- 
tance to  the  Union  as  a  State  has  been  refused  on  account  of  the 
Mormon  belief,  which  is  that  the  laws  of  Church  transcend  the 
laws  of  State. 

Farming,  Stock-raising,  and  Mining,  are  the  chief  in- 
dustries. The  first  engages  3,000,000  acres  of  arable  lands 
watered  by  1,000  miles  of  canals.  The  beautiful  green  valleys  of 
the  Mormon  farmers  have  resulted  from  the  outlay  of  much 
labor  and  money. 

Irrigation,  which  was  first  experimented  with  by  these 
farmers,  is  rapidly  turning  barren  lands  into  vineyards  and  adding 
to  the  area  now  under  cultivation.  This  already  yields  about 
6,000,000  bushels  of  grain,  as  many  of  fruit,  and  5,000,000  tons  of 


VERMONT.  421 

hay.  Wine,  almonds,  and  raisins  are  here  produced,  and  fields 
of  cotton  whiten  the  valleys.  Live  stock  has  increased  from 
500,000  head  in  1876  to  3,000,000  at  the  time  of  the  last  census. 
Between  1871  and  1891  Utah  produced  about  $100,000,000  in 
silver,  about  $40,000,000  in  lead,  and  $10,000,000  in  gold  and 
copper,  and  was  next  to  Colorado  and  Montana  in  the  production 
of  lead,  yielding  yearly  more  than  24,000  tons.  Many  other 
minerals  are  also  mined. 

Education,  after  the  commissioner  of  public  schools  was 
made  an  appointee  of  the  Supreme  Court,  has  been  maintained 
by  the  Mormons.  The  University  of  Deseret,  a  high  and  nor- 
mal school  at .  Salt  Lake  City,  is  a  Territorial  institution,  dating 
from  1850,  and  has  fourteen  teachers  and  830  students.  The 
Brigham  Young  College,  founded  at  Logan,  in  1878,  is  a  Mor- 
mon institution  with  260  students.  Ogden  also  has  a  large 
military  academy.  The  national  institutions  are  Fort  Logan,  near 
Salt  Lake  City,  and  Fort  Duchesne.  Four  million  acres  of  land 
are  apportioned  to  the  Ute  Indians,  in  reservations  called  the 
Uintah  and  Uncompahgre  Reservations,  while  the  Shoshones  in 
the  north  and  Pintes  in  the  south  rove  at  will  in  those  parts. 

The  three  largest  cities  are  Salt  Lake  City,  Ogden,  and 
Provo,  with  a  population  respectively,  according  to  the  census  of 
1890,  of  45,840,  14,889,  and  about  5,200.  The  manufactures 
employ  only  about  3,600  hands,  yielding  a  product  of  $9,000,000, 
the  larger  portion  of  which  comes  from  Salt  Lake  City.  The 
three  principal  smelters,  which  are  a  few  miles  south  of  this  city, 
represent  a  value  of  $400,000.  The  Governor  of  Utah  Territory 
is  Arthur  L.  Thomas  (Republican),  whose  term  of  office  expires 
December  30,  1893. 

Vermont.— The   country  was  first  visited  by  Champlain   in 

the  year  1609,  but  the  earliest  white 
settlements  within  the  present  limits 
of  Vermont  were  made  about  1724- 
25  near  Brattleboro,  where  a  fort 
was  erected  by  Massachusetts  emi- 
grants. The  French  built  a  fort  in 
1731,  near  the  southern  extremity 
of  Lake  Champlain,  but  soon  aban- 
doned it.  About  1760,  one  hundred 
and  thirty-eight  settlements  were 
made  under  grants  from  the  gov- 
ernor of  New  Hampshire.  New 
York  also  claimed  the  region,  and  a 
GREAT  SEAL  OF  VERMONT.  war  resuited  which  became  famous 
by  reason  of  the  exploits  of  Ethan  Allen's  "Green  Mountain 


422  VERMONT. 

Boys."  The  Green  Mountains  intersect  the  State  from  north 
to  south,  and  contain  a  number  of  peaks  from  3,000  to  4,500  feet 
high.  A  second  range,  of  inferior  height,  branches  off  at  Killington 
Peak  and  trends  northeast.  There  are  also  some  detached  peaks, 
of  which  Mount  Ascutney,  3,320  feet  high,  is  the  most  conspic- 
uous. Lake  Champlain  extends  for  105  miles  along  the 
western  border,  and  receives  many  small  rivers  and  creeks. 
The  entire  territory  east  of  the  mountains  is  drained  by  the. 
Connecticut  River  and  its  numerous  tributaries,  the  Connecticut 
separating  Vermont  from  New  Hampshire.  The  Connecticut  is 
the  only  navigable  river.  Lake  Champlain,  120  miles  in  length, 
and  from  forty  rods  to  fifteen  miles  in  width,  has  a  depth  of 
from  fifty  to  nearly  three  hundred  feet,  and  is  navigable  through- 
out by  the  largest  vessels. 

The  Vermont  Marble  Quarries  yield  three  quarters  of  the 
product  of  the  country.  The  (State  produces  also  granite,  slate, 
liin?,  some  copper  ore,  and  manganese.  Farm  values  have  not 
increased  since  the  war,  but  the  soil  is  fertile,  yielding  large 
crops  of  hay. 

The  dairy  products  of  the  State  are  very  valuable,  aggregating 
25,000,000  pounds  in  a  year.  The  product  of  maple  sugar  is 
over  $1,200,000  in  a  year.  The  chief  manufactures  are  scales, 
organs,  farm  implements,  paper  and  machinery,  and  aggregate 
$31,350,000  in  a  year.  The  population  of  Vermont  in  1880  was 
332,286 ;  in  1890,  it  was  332,205,  a  loss  of  81.  The  real  property 
was  valued  at  $111,000,000,  the  personal  property  at  $50,000,000. 
The  farm  land  acreage  was  4,882,588,  valued  at  $109,346,010, 
yielding  products  worth  $22,082,656.  The  school  attendance 
was  46,081,  the  railroad  mileage  was  1,012,  and  the  number  of 
newspapers  was  81. 

Burlington,  the  capital  and  the  chief  city,  has  a  fine  situation 
overlooking  Lake  Champlain.  Here  is  located  the  University  of 
Vermont.  In  1890  the  population  was  14,500.  Rutland,  the 
second  city,  is  a  prosperous  business  and  railroad  centre.  Its 
population  in  1890  was  11,760.  St.  Albans  is  the  third  city 
(population  7,771),  and  Brattleboro  is  the  fourth  city  (population 
6,869).  At  Bennington  is  located  a  fine  monument  commemora- 
ting the  Battle  of  Bennington,  in  1777.  The  monument  is  of 
dolomite,  in  the  form  of  an  obelisk,  301  feet  high,  and  the  top  is 
reached  by  means  of  a  stairway  on  the  inside.  Carroll  S.  Page 
(Rep.)  is  Governor  of  Vermont.  His  term  expires  October  3, 
1892.  The  State  is  Republican. 

Very  Hungry  and  Very  Thirsty.  (See  Sayings  of  Famous 
Americans.) 


VIRGINIA. 


423 


"Veto  Power. — •  The  veto  is  the  weapon  lodged  by  the  Consti- 
tution with  the  President,  as  a  means  of  preventing  the  enact- 
ment of  laws  passed  by  Congress,  but  which  he  does  not  approve. 
The  same  power  by  the  constitutions  of  States  and  of  cities  is 
vested  in  governors  and  in  mayors.  To  override  the  Executive 
veto,  Congress  must  in  both  houses  do  so  by  a  two  thirds  vote,  and 
in  most  of  the  States  a  two  thirds  vote  of  both  houses  of  the 
legislature  is  necessary.  In  other  States,  a  simple  majority  or  a 
three  fifths  vote  is  necessary,  while  Ohio,  Delaware,  Rhode  Island, 
and  North  Carolina,  deny  the  governor  the  power  of  veto.  In 
vetoing  a  bill,  the  President  returns  it  to  the  house  in  which  it 
originated,  accompanied  by  a  statement  of  his  objections.  Failure 
to  return  a  bill  within  ten  days  (Sundays  excepted)  is  equivalent 
to  signing  it.  The  same  limit  applies  to  most  of  the  States. 

Virginia. —  Virginia  is  honored  in  having  within  her  limits  the 
First  Permanent  Settlement  by  the  English  in  America. 

This  was  effected  at  Jamestown,  in 
1607.  From  1609  there  were  con- 
stant accessions  to  the  colony, 
although  troubles  with  the  Indians 
and  misgovernment  hindered  the 
prosperity  of  the  settlement.  In 
1624  the  London  company  was  dis- 
solved and  Virginia  became  directly 
subject  to  the  ci'own.  The  Shenan- 
doah,  Alleghany,  and  Cumberland 
Mountains  extend  along  the  West 
Virginia  border  from  Harper's  Ferry 
to  the  Tennessee  line.  The  six 
great  topographical  divisions  are 
known  as  the  Tidewater,  Middle, 

Piedmont,  Blue  Ridge,  Valley,  and  Appalachian  sections,  all  of 
which  extend  across  the  State  from  northeast  to  south  west, 
and  have  a  general  trend  corresponding  to  that  of  the  Atlantic 
coast  and  the  Appalachian  range.  More  than  three  fourths  of 
Virginia  is  drained  by  the  Potomac,  Rappahannock,  Rapidan, 
York,  Elizabeth,  James,  and  their  tributaries,  all  of  which  find 
their  way  at  last  to  the  Atlantic. 

The  chief  industry  is  Agriculture,  and  the  staple  product  is 
leaf -tobacco,  for  which  the  State  has  a  wide  fame.  There  are  over 
127,000  acres  growing  tobacco,  the  yield  in  1888  being  64,034,- 
000  pounds,  valued  at  $3,842,000.  Peanuts  is  another  important 
industry,  yielding  $2,500,000  in  a  year.  Truck-farming  is  carried 
on  with  great  success,  early  fruits  and  vegetables  of  all  kinds 
being  raised  in  large  quantities  for  the  northern  market.  The 


GREAT     SEAL     OF    VIRGINIA. 


424 


VIRGINIA. 


State  has  4,100  acres  in  bearing  vines  and  produces  461,000 
gallons  of  wine  in  a  year. 

Lumbering  employs  thousands  of  men,  and  keeps  many  saw- 
mills in  operation.  Large  areas  are  covered  with  valuable  forests 
of  pine,  oak,  hickory,  walnut,  buttonwood,  and  various  hard 
woods.  The  forests  of  the  Dismal  Swamp  produce  enormous 
quantities  of  pine  and  cypress.  The  oystering  industry  in  the 
Chesapeake  Bay  employs  upwards  of  14,000  men,  .5,800  boats 
and  canoes,  and  yields  7,000,000  bushels  of  the  bivalve  in  a  year. 
The  catch  of  other  sea-fish  is  very  large. 

The  production  of  Pig  Iron  in  Virginia  rose  from  30,000  tons 
in  1880  to  292,779  tons  in  1890,  employing  82  blast  furnaces, 
besides  40,000  tons  of  rolled  iron.  Iron  is  made  here  at  from 
$11  to  $13  a  ton.  In  this  industry  Virginia  is  the  fourth  State. 
Gold,  lead,  large  quantities  of  manganese,  gypsum,  salt,  zinc, 
granite,  slate,  and  other  minerals  are  found.  The  State  is  fa- 


BICHMOXD,    VA.,    IX    1861. 

mous  for  its  winter  and  summer  resorts,  both  seashore  and  moun- 
tain. 

The  United  States  institutions  are  the  Navy  Yard  and  Naval 
Hospital  at  Portsmouth  near  Norfolk,  the  National  Cemeteries 
(See  Army,  United  States),  and  Fort  Monroe,  covering  80 
acres,  with  granite  walls  35  feet  high,  which  is  used  as  a  place  of 
arms  and  rendezvous  for  the  Southern  and  Middle  States. 

The  chief  institutions  of  learning  are  the  Washington  and  Lee 
University,  at  Lexington,  Roanoke  College,  at  Salem,  the  Uni- 
versity of  Virginia,  at  Charlottesville,  the  William  and  Mary 
College,  at  Williamsburg,  besides  several  normal  schools  for  whites, 
the  schools  at  Hampton  and  Petersburg  for  colored  students,  the 
Military  Institute  at  Lexington,  which  is  maintained  by  the  State, 


WALKING    DELEGATE,  425 

and  the  Virginia  Agricultural  College  at  Blacksburg.  The 
attendance  is  198,120.  The  population  of  Virginia  in  1880  was 
1,512,565  ;  in  1890,  it  was  1,655,980,  of  whom  640,867  were 
colored.  The  net  State  debt  was  $31,525,535  ;  the  real  property 
was  valued  at  $261,000,000  ;  the  personal  property  at  $118,- 
000,000.  The  manufactures  aggregated  $51,810,000;  the  farm 
lands  numbered  19,910,700  acres,  valued  at  $216,028,107,  pro- 
ducing $45,726,221.  The  mileage  of  railroads  in  1890  was  3,160, 
and  the  number  of  newspapers  in  1892  was  262. 

Of  the  historic  buildings,  places,  and  physical  wonders,  the 
more  interesting  are  the  Court  House  at  Fairfax,  George 
Washington's  home  and  burial  place  (see  Presidents),  at  Mount 
Vernon,  Jefferson's  home  at  Monticello,  the  Soldier's 
Cemetery  at  Arlington,  opposite  Washington,  D.  C.,  with  its 
16,292  graves;  the  Natural  Bridge,  the  Luray  Caverns,  the 
Yorktown  Monument,  the  old  Lee  mansion  at  Arlington,  the 
Randolph  mansion,  on  Malvern  Hill,  Christ  Church  at  Alexandria, 
where  Washington  worshipped,  and  the  battlefields  of  Bull  Run, 
and  the  scenes  of  other  famous  battles  of  the  Civil  War. 

The  chief  city  is  Richmond,  the  capital  (population  in  1890, 
81,388),  where  the  tobacco  manufacturing  industry  centres.  The 
Washington  monument,  the  Lee  monument,  the  old  St.  John's 
Church,  and  the  Hollywood  Cemetery,  are  among  its  more  attrac- 
tive-sights. Norfolk  (population  in  1890,  34,871)  is  a  shipping 
and  railroad  centre ;  Petersburg  (population,  22,680)  and 
Lynchburg  (population,  19,789)  are  leading  manufacturing  and 
business  centres.  Philip  W.  McKinney  (Dem.)  is  Governor  of 
Virginia.  His  term  of  office  expires  January  31,  1893.  The 
State  is  Democratic. 

Virginius,  Capture  of  The. —  While  sailing  under  the 
American  flag,  arid  supposed  to  have  on  board  arms  and  men,  in 
aid  of  the  insurgents  in  Cuba,  the  steamer  Virginius,  on  October 
31,  1873,  was  seized  by  a  Spanish  vessel,  and  a  number  of  her 
officers  and  passengers  were  put  to  death.  This  government, 
upon  an  investigation,  demanded  of  Spain  the  surrender  of  the 
prisoners  and  of  the  vessel,  and  reparation  for  the  insult  to  the 
American  flag.  The  vessel  and  the  prisoners  were  surrendered, 
Spain  made  satisfactory  apology,  and  an  inquiry  revealed  the  fact 
that  the  vessel  was  not  entitled  to  sail  under  the  American  flag. 

Voting  in  the  Air.     (See  Slang  of  Politics.) 

Walking  Delegate.—  The  walking  delegate  is  a  representa- 
tive of  trades  unions,  whose  duty  is  to  circulate  among  laboring 
men,  and  report  to  headquarters  any  grievance  they  may  have,  or 
to  interview  the  employer  in  their  interest.  He  makes  himself 


426 


WARS    OF    THE    UNITED    STATES. 


variously  useful,  and  as  he  does  a  good  deal  of  walking  from 
place  to  place,  he  has  earned  the  title  of  walking  delegate.     At 
first,  employers  met  him  on  an  equal  footing,  but  it  was  not  long 
before  they  refused  to  recognize  him,  preferring  to  deal  with  tin- 
men themselves.     In  not  a  few  instances,  walking  delegates  have- 
been  arrested  for  threatening  employers  with  a  strike  unless  their 
demands  were  complied  with. 
War  Democrats.      (See  Political  Parties.) 
War  Department.      (See  Federal  Government.) 
War  Tariff.     (See  Tariffs  of  the  United  States.) 
War  to  the  Knife.     (See  Sayings  of  Famous  Americans.) 
Wars  Of  the  United   States. —  The  following  table  enumer- 
ates the  wars  this  government  has   waged  with  foreign   nations, 
with  rebellious  States,  and  with  Indian  tribes,  and  gives  also  the 
number  of  regular  troops  and  of  volunteers,  including  the  militia. 


•WAK8  OF  THE  O.  S. 

BEGAN 

ENDED 

REGU- 
LARS. 

MILITIA  & 
VOLUN- 
TEERS 

TOTAL 

War  of  the  Revolution  

Apr.  19,  1775 

Apr.  11,  1783 

130,711 

58,750 
105,300 

Additional  (estimate)    

309,791 

8,983 
4,593 
3,330 

*      910 
ffl,T81 

i.o.->.o4i; 

Northwestern  Indian  (Gen.  St. 
Clair)  

Sept.  10,  1790 
JUJy   '.»,   1798 

Aug.  3.  IT'.C, 
Sept.  30,  1800 
June  4,  1805 

Nov.  11,  1811 
Aug.  !),  isu 
Feb,  17,  1815 
June  28,  1815 
Oct.  21,  1818 
Sept.  31,  1832 

1837 
Sept.  31,1837 
Aug.  14,  1843 
1839 
July  4,  1848 
1861 
1854 
1858 
Mav  11,  186o 
1862 
June,      1873 
1876 
Oct.,        1877 
1879 
1890 

War  with  France  

War  with  Tripoli 

June  10,  1801 

Sept.  11,1811 
Aug.  13,  1813 
June  19,  1812 
May,       1815 
Nov.  20,  1817 
Apr.  21,  1831 

183(5 
May  5,   1836 
Dec.  23,  1835 
1838 
Apr.  24,  1846 
1849 
1854 
1856 
Apr.  21,  1861 
1862 
1872 
June  25,  1876 
1877 
IST'.I 
1890 

Tecumseh  Indian  (Gen.  Harri- 
son)   

250 
600 
33,424 

660 
13,181 
471.C22 

Creek  Indian  

War  of  1812  with  Great  Britian 
"  Algerine  "  

Seminole  Indian  

1.000 
1,339 

6,911 
6,1*8 

9,494 
12,483 
29,963 

1/.IKI 

73,776 
1,061 

503 
2,687 

7.H11 
6,4S5 

9,494 
13,418 
41.1-"-' 

l.:.ni> 
101  ,2S2 

1,001 

MI:; 
2,687 
2.772.40S 

Cherokee    Disturbance    or  Re- 
moval   

Creek  Indian  Disturbance  
Florida  Indian    ;  

'.<;;:, 
11,169 

Aroostook  Disturbance  

War  with  Mexico  

27^606 

Apache,  Navajo,  and  Utah  
Comanche  Indian  

Seminole  Indian        .  . 

Civil  War  

Sioux  Indian  

Modoc  Indian  

Sioux  Indian  

N  z  Percti  Indian  

1  're  Indian  

Sioux  Indian  

The  Number  of  Troops  enlisted  in  the  Confederate  cause 
has  never  been  authentically  determined.  The  number  has 
been  variously  estimated,  but  it  probably  approximated  600,000. 

The  Number  of  Casualties  in  the  volunteer  and  regular 
armies  of  the  United  States,  during  the  Avar  of  1861-65,  was 
reported  by  the  Provost  Marshal  General  in  1866  :  Killed  in  bat- 
tle, 61,362;  died  of  wounds,  34,727;  died  of  disease,  183,287; 


WASHINGTON^ 


427 


total  died,  279,376;  total  deserted,  199,105.  Number  of  soldiers 
in  the  Confederate  service  who  died  of  wounds  or  disease  (par- 
tial statement),  133,821.  Deserted  (partial  statement),  104,428. 
dumber  of  United  States  troops  captured  during  the  war,  212,- 
608  ;  Confederate  troops  captured,  476,169.  Number  of  United 
States  troops  paroled  on  the  field,  16,431  ;  Confederate  troops 
paroled  on  the  field,  248,599.  Number  of  United  States  troops 
who  died  while  prisoners,  29,725  ;  Confederate  troops  who  died 
while  prisoners,  26,774. 

Washington  of  the  West.     (See  Presidents  of  the  United 

States.) 

Washington. —  The  first  settlement  was  at  Turnwater,  in 
1845  by  Boston  traders.  It  was  ad- 
mitted as  a  State  in  1889.  The  Cas- 
cade Mountains  traverse  it  north  and 
south  from  British  Columbia  to  Oregon, 
and  divide  it  into  two  unequal  portions, 
the  eastern  sedition  containing  about 
50,000  and  the  western  nearly  20,000 
square  miles.  The  highest  peak  is 
Mount  Rainier  or  Tacoma,  14,- 
500  feet,  and  tiiere  are  several  others 
almost  as  high. 

The  picturesque  Columbia  River 
enters  the  State  from  the  north,  trav- 
erses its  whole  breadth  and  with  its  tributaries  drains  nearly  its 
whole  area.  The  Snake,  Walla  Walla,  Spokane,  Colville,  and 
Clarke's  Fork  are  its  principal  affluents.  The  State  has  a  coast 
line  on  the  Pacific  of  about  180  miles  which  furnishes  many  ex- 
cellent harbors. 

The  Industries  are  lumbering,  fisheries,  and  agriculture. 
The  lumber  industry  yields  over  1,200,000,000  feet,  employing 
5,000  men,  and  several  hundred  sawmills,  many  of  which  export 
to  Australia.  The  forests  contain  red  firs,  cedar,  pines,  hemlock, 
and  many  other  woods.  The  Fisheries  include  salmon,  halibut, 
ovsters,  sturgeon,  herring,  and  various  other  food  fish.  Agricul- 
ture yields  15,0<00,000  bushels  of  wheat,  besides  large  quantities 
of  corn,  hops,  and  vegetables. 

Stock  Raising  has  assumed  extensive  proportions,  and  irri- 
gating canals  extend  hundreds  of  miles.  Coal  is  produced  to  the 
amount  of  over  1,000,000  tons  in  a  year.  Iron  ore,  granite,  lead, 
gold,  silver,  copper,  sandstone,  and  other  minerals  are  found. 
The  population  in  1880  was  75,115;  in  1890  it  was  349,390. 
The  manufactures  are  worth  over  $3,250,134 ;  the  farm  land 


GREAT  SEAL  OF  "WASHINGTON. 


428 


WAYWARD    SISTERS. 


acreage  is  over  $1,409,000,  valued  at  over  $13,844,000,  yielding 
over  $4,212,000  in  a  year.  The  daily  school  attendance  is  over 
29,247.  In  1890  there  were  1,783  miles  of  railroad,  and  in  1892 
there  were  194  newspapers. 

Seattle,  the  capital,  has  a  fine  situation  on  Puget  Sound,  with 
a  magnificent  harbor.  It  is  an  extensive  export,  manufacturing, 
and  commercial  centre.  Its  population  in  1880  was  4,000;  in 
1890,  it  was  42,837.  It  has  a  fine  opera  house,  excellent  hotels, 
a  beautiful  Chamber  of  Commerce,  and  substantial  business  build- 
ings. 

Tacoma,  the  second  city  (population  30,000),  is  at  the  head 
of  Puget  Sound  navigation,  and  an  important  railroad  and  ship- 
ping centre.  Ships  leave  the  wharves  here  direct  for  Australia, 
China,  and  Japan.  Spokane  Falls,  the  third  city  (population 
19,922),  is  the  centre  of  an  agricultural  and  mining  region.  The 
Governor  of  Washington  is  Elisha  P.  Ferry  (Republican),  whose 
term  expires  January  4,  1893.  The  State  is  Republican. 

Washington  Monument.     (See  Monuments  and  Statues.) 

Watchdog  of  the  Treasury.  (See  Nicknames  of  Famous 
Americans.) 

Wayward  Sisters. — Gen.  Winfield  Scott,  in  a  letter  to  William 
II.  Seward,  in  1861,  used  the  phrase  "  wayward  sisters  "  in  speak- 
ing of  the  slave  States  which  had  seceded.  The  allusion  was  that 
it  would  be  better  to  allow  them  to  go  in  peace  rather  than*  to 
precipitate  a  civil  war. 

Weather  Indications.      (See  Signal  Service.) 

We  Have  Met  the  Enemy,  and  They  Are  Ours.  (See  Say- 
ings of  Famous  Americans.) 

Weight  Of  Coins.      (See  Coinage,  Free  Coinage,  etc.) 

We  love  Him  for  the  Enemies  He  Has  Made.  (See  Say- 
ings of  Famous  Americans.) 

We  Must  All  Hang  Together.  (See  Sayings  of  Famous 
Americans.) 

West  Point  Military  Academy.  (See  Army,  United  States.) 
West  Virginia. — The  State  was  settled  at  Phillipi,  in  1704, 
by  Americans.  It  was  formed  into  a  State  in  1863,  and  was 
composed  of  the  northern  and  western  counties  of  Virginia. 
West  Virginia  is  extremely  hilly.  The  Alleghany  range  on  its 
eastern  boundary  contains  several  large  peaks,  and  west  of  this 
range  and  running  parallel  with  it,  at  an  average  distance  of 
thirty  miles,  are  a  series  of  mountains  scarcely  inferior  in  height, 
which  enclose  many  fertile  valleys. 


WEST    VIRGINIA. 


429 


GREAT  SEAL  OF  WEST  VIRGINIA 


The  Scenery  of  the  mountain  regions  is  very  fine,  and  forms 
a  special  attraction  for  tourists.  The  White  Sulphur  Springs 
region  is  annually  visited  by  thousands  of  people.  The  Po- 
tomac forms  part  of  the  eastern 
boundary.  The  I>ig  Sandy,  Great 
and  Little  Kanawha,  Guayandotte 
and  Monongahela  are  all  navigable. 
The  slack  water  navigation  of  the 
Kanawha  and  Monongahela  is  of 
much  service  to  the  commerce  of  the 
State,  and  by  means  of  the  Ohio  the 
southern  and  southwestern  cities  can 
be  reached. 

Agriculture  produces  yearly 
about  16,000,000  bushels  of  corn, 
8,000,000  of  wheat,  and  3,000,000  of 
oats  ;  and  employs  nearly  two  thirds 
of  the  people.  The  chief  rural  vocation  is  the  raising  of  horses, 
cattle,  and  sheep.  The  Pan-Handle  counties  have  large  flocks  of 
she"ep,  favored  by  the  limestone  soil,  abundant  water,  and  genial 
climate.  There  are  1,600,000  head  of  livestock.  The  tobacco 
industry  yields  5,000,000  pounds  in  a  year,  valued  at  $400,000. 

Lumbering  and  Coal  Mining  are  extensive  industries; 
in  coal-production,  West  Virginia  stands  fourth  among  the 
States,  having  an  annual  output  of  6,500,000  tons,  chiefly  bitum- 
inous. In  petroleum  production  the  State  stands  third,  averaging 
360,000  barrels  in  a  year.  Natural  gas,  iron-ore,  salt,  sandstone, 
limestone,  marble,  copper  are  also  produced. 

The  population  in  1880  was  618,457;  in  1890,  it  wa$  762,794. 
The  real  property  was  valued  at  8119,000,000,  the  personal  prop- 
erty at  $60,000,000.  The  manufactures  produce  in  a  year  over 
$22,860,000.  The  farm  lands  cover  10,225,000  acres,  valued  at 
$133,147,115,  yielding  $19,360,049.  The  daily  school  atten- 
dance is  121,700.  In  1890  there  were  1,327  miles  of  railroads, 
and  in  1892  there  were  152  newspapers. 

Wheeling,  the  chief  city,  is  a  thriving  manufacturing  centre, 
admirably  situated  on  the  Ohio  River.  The  population  in  1890 
was  35,013.  The  second  city  is  Huntingdon  (population  10,- 
108).  Parkersburg  is  the  third  city  (population  8,408),  and 
the  shipping  point  of  the  petroleum  region.  Charleston  (popula- 
tion 6,734)  is  the  capital,  and  has  many  salt  springs.  The  Gov- 
ernor of  West  Virginia  is  William  II.  Ohley  (Democrat).  Ills 
term  of  office  expires  March  4,  1893.  The  State  is  Democratic. 

Wets.       (See  Slang  of  Politics.) 


430  WILMOT    PROVISO. 

What  A  Glorious  Morning  Is  This!  (See  Sayings  of 
Famous  Americans.) 

What  Hath  God  Wrought.      (See  Telegraph,  The.) 
Wheat,  Production  Of.       (See  Agriculture.) 
WhigS.       (See  Political  Parties.) 

Whiskey  Ring,  The. —  During  the  first  administration  of 
President  Grant,  a  conspiracy  was  brought  to  light  which  incriini 
nated  a  large  number  of  Federal  officials.  Investigation  shown  1 
that  a  large  amount  of  whiskey,  which  had  been  represented  as 
stored,  had  actually  been  shipped  to  various  parts  of  the  country, 
with  the  connivance  of  collectors,  gangers,  and  other  officials. 
The  purpose  of  the  conspirators  was  to  defraud  the  government 
of  the  taxes  on  the  liquor.  Many  high  Federal  officials  were 
implicated,  and  the  scandal  created  a  profound  sensation.  The 
result  was  the  indictment  of  over  two  hundred  persons,  and  the 
confiscation  of  $3,500,000  worth  of  whiskey,  on  May  10,  1875. 

Whitewash.      (See  Slang  of  Politics.) 
Widows  of  Presidents  and  Federal  Officers  on  Pension 
List.      (See  Pension  Office.) 

Widows  of    Revolutionary   Soldiers    on  Pension  List. 

(See  Pension  Office.) 

Wilmot  Proviso.  (See  Omnibus  Bill.) —  So  called  from  the 
fact  that  it  twas  introduced  by  Congressman  David  Wilmot,  of 
Pennsylvania.  On  August  8,  1846,  President  Polk  requested  of 
Congress  an  appropriation  of  money  with  which  to  make  a  treaty 
with  Mexico,  by  purchasing  such  of  her  territory  as  this  govern- 
ment might  want,  and  thus  to  settle  the  war  then  being  carried 
on.  The  bill  appropriating  the  money,  $2,000,000,  brought  up 
the  slavery  question,  Wilmot,  who  acted  upon  the  advice  of 
Northern  Democrats,  offering  a  proviso  that  "  neither  slavery  nor 
involuntary  servitude  shall  ever  exist  in  any  part  of  said  territory, 
(to  be  purchased),  except  for  crime,  whereof  the  party  shall  first 
be  convicted."  The  Whigs  and  Northern  Democrats  favored  the 
proviso,  and  it  passed  the  House,  but  arrived  in  the  Senate  too 
late  to  be  acted  upon.  In  the  next  Congress,  Wilmot  introduced 
his  proviso  again,  but  he  failed  in  two  attempts  to  put  it  through. 
In  the  discussion,  the  doctrine  of  "  Squatter  Sovereignty  w  was 
enunciated,  which  was  in  effect  that  the  people  of  a  State  or 
Territory  should  settle  the  question  of  .slavery  themselves. 

Wire-Puller.      (See  Slang  of  Politics.) 

Wisconsin. —  The  country  was  settled  at  La  Pointe,  in  1005, 
by  Frenchmen  who  built  a  mission  there.  The  discovery  in  this 


WISCONSIN. 


431 


GREAT  SEAL  OF  WISCONSIN. 


region  of  prehistoric  implements,  and  of  earthworks  in  the  shape 
of  mounds,  have  led  ethnologists  to  believe  that  at  some  early 
age  the  country  was  inhabited  by  an  unknown  tribe  who  are 
supposed  to  have  been  what  experts  call  "  Mound- Build- 
ers." 

Wisconsin  became  a  State  in  1847,  and  its  development  since 
then  has  been  rapid.  Its  general  character  is  that  of  a  large 

plain.  The  plain  is  from  six  hundred 
to  fifteen  hundred  feet  above  the  level 
of  the  sea.  The  Mississippi,  Fox,  and 
Wisconsin  Rivers  have  a  considerable 
descent  while  passing  through  or  along 
the  boundary  of  the  State,  thus  fur- 
nishing valuable  water  power.  Be- 
sides the  great  lakes  — -  Superior  on 
the  north  and  Michigan  on  the  east 
-  there  are  numerous  bodies  of 
water  in  the  central  and  northern  parts 
of  the  State.  These  lakes  are  from 
five  to  thirty  miles  in  extent,  with 
high  picturesque  banks,  and  as  a  rule, 
deep  water.  From  these  many  rivers  take  their  rise,  a  number 
having  beautiful  cascades  or  rapids,  and  flowing  through  narrow, 
rocky  gorges,  or  "  dells,"  the  scenery  of  which  has  become 
famous.  Wisconsin  has  an  endless  variety  of  beautiful  scenery. 
The  four  lakes  which  surround  Madison ;  the  Dells,  near  Kil- 
bourn  City;  the  weird  beauty  of  Devil's  Lake,  which  in  the 
mystery  of  its  origin  rivals  Lake  Tahoe ;  and  the  calm  peace 
which  reigns  at  Geneva  Lake,  all  possess  attractions  for  summer 
tourists. 

The  Wisconsin  Forests  are  the  most  valuable  of  its  resources, 
the  annual  output  of  lumber  aggregating  over  1,500,000,000  feet, 
besides  an  enormous  quantity  of  laths  and  shingles.  Pine,  oak, 
birch,  basswood,  poplar,  spruce  here  grow  in  the  utmost  pro- 
fusion. 

The  Farms,  according  to  the  latest  estimates,  are  worth  $100,- 
000,000,  yielding  40,000,000  bushels  of  oats,  almost  as  many  of 
corn,  20,000,000  of  wheat,  12,000,000  of  barley,  11,000,000  of 
potatoes,  besides  immense  crops  of  hay  and  apples.  Of  tobacco, 
the  yield  is  over  20,000,000  pounds.  Fruit,  flax,  and  wild  rice 
yield  large  harvests. 

The  Live- Stock  Is  valued  at  $75,000,000,  including  over  a  mil- 
lion cattle,  890,000  sheep,  400,000  horses,  and  750,000  swine.  The 
dairy  industry  yields  35,000,000  pounds  of  butter  and  30,000,- 
000  of  cheese.  In  Iron  ores,  Wisconsin  is  the  sixth  State, 


432  WOMAN'    SUFFRAGE. 

yielding  in  a  year  over  800,000  tons.  Other  valuable  minenil 
products  are  quicklime,  sandstone,  lead,  zinc,  bricks,  limestone, 
pipestone,  arid  cement. 

The  Manufactures  are  most  diversified,  aggregating  in  a 
year  upwards  of  $140,000,000.  The  mineral  springs  of  the  State 
are  numerous,  and  are  patronized  by  thousands. 

The  chief  educational  institutions  are  Racine  College  at 
Racine,  the  University  of  Wisconsin  at  Madison,  Beloit  College 
at  Beloit,  besides  five  State  Normal  Schools,  and  many  sectarian 
institutions.  The  population  of  Wisconsin  in  1880  was  1,315,- 
497;  in  1890  it  was  1,686,880.  The  real  property  was  valued 
at  $455,000,000,  the  personal  property  at  $125,000,000.  The 
farm  lands  cover  over  16,000,000  acres,  valued  at  $400,000,000. 
The  daily  school  attendance  is  200,457.  In  1890,  there  were 
5,583  miles  of  railroad,  and  in  1892  there  were  529  newspapers. 

Milwaukee,  the  chief  city,  had  a  population  in  1890  of 
204,468.  It  is  situated  on  Lake  Michigan,  having  a  fine  harbor 
which  is  protected  by  a  large  breakwater.  There  are  large  grain 
elevators  where  grain  is  loaded  onto  vessels  bound  for  the  East. 
Steamers  have  left  this  harbor  loaded  with  grain  and  mill  pro- 
ducts direct  to  England. 

There  is  an  immense  Shipping  Trade.  In  entrances  and 
clearances  it  follows  closely  upon  Chicago,  the  number  last  year 
exceeding  twenty  thousand.  It  is  the  centre  of  an  immense  beer- 
brewing  business. 

La  Crosse,  the  second  city  (population,  25,090),  is  a  prosperous 
manufacturing  city,  situated  on  the  Mississippi.  Oshkosh,  the 
third  city,  another  manufacturing  centre  (population,  22,836),  is 
situated  on  Lake  Winnebago.  Madison,  the  capital  (population, 
13,426),  is  in  the  centre  of  beautiful  lake  country,  and  has  several 
fine  public  buildings.  The  Chautauquan  assemblies  are  annually 
held  here.  The  Governor  of  Wisconsin  is  George  W.  1'eek 
(Democrat),  whose  term  expires  January  2,  1893.  The  State  is 
Republican. 

Wizard  of  Kinderkook.  (See  Presidents  of  the  United 
States.) 

Woman  Suffrage. — Woman  suffrage  is  credited  with  having 
begun  in  France  in  1790,  but  it  took  no  definite  form.  New  Jer- 
sey in  1793  imposed  certain  restrictions  on  voters,  and  included 
both  sexes.  The  act  was  repealed  fourteen  years  later.  The 
first  woman's  rights  convention  was  held  at  Seneca  Falls,  N.  Y., 
in  1848.  The  demand  for  suffrage  was  based  on  the  ground 
that  many  women  are  tax-payers,  that  all  are  interested  in  good 
government,  and  that  it  is  unjust  for  women  of  intelligence  to  be 


CD 

C 


WOMEN'S  CHKISTIAN  TEMPERANCE  UNION. 


433 


deprived  of  a  vote  while  ignorant  men  have  a  voice  in  the  gov- 
ernment.    They  assert  that  their  influence  will  have  a  purifyin^ 
effect  on  politics.     Practically  the  same  arguments  are  made  to- 
day.    The  first  National  Convention  was  held  at  Worcester, 
Mass.,  in  1850.     The  proposition  to  admit  women  to  suffrage  has 
for  many   years  been  submitted   to   the    successive    State    and 
national  conventions,  and  in  some  sections  of  the  country  the 
public  sentiment  in  its  favor  has  assumed  great  strength.     In 
1870  the  Republican  State  Convention  of  Massachusetts  admitted 
Lucy  Stone  and  Mary  A.  Livermore  as  delegates.     The  Repub- 
lican National  Conventions  of  1872  and  1876  resolved  that  "  the 
honest  demands  "  of  this  "  class  of  citizens  for  additional  rio-hts 
.  .  .  should  be  treated  with  respectful  consideration." 
The  Prohibition   party,  in  its  platform  of  1872,  had  a  woman 
suffrage  plank,   and    the  Greenback   national  platform  of    1884 
favored  the  submission  of  a  woman  suffrage  amendment  to  the 
people.     The  woman   suffragists,  organized  as  the  Equal  Rights 
Party  (which   see)  in   1884,  nominated  Belva  A.  Lockwood  for 
the  Presidency.     She  had  2,500   votes.     The  right  to  vote  for 
School  Committees,  etc.,  has   been  granted  to  women  in  Ari- 
zona, Colorado,  Delaware,  Idaho,  Illinois,  Indiana,  Kansas,  Ken- 
tucky,   Massachusetts,   Michigan,     Minnesota,     Nebraska,    New 
Hampshire,  New  Jersey,  New   York,  North   Dakota,  Oklahoma, 
Oregon,  South  Dakota,  Texas,  Vermont,  Washington,  and  Wis- 
consin.    In  Kansas   women    have    equal    suffrage  with   men   in 
municipal  elections.     In  Wyoming  they  have  voted  for  State  and 
municipal  officers  since  1870.     In  Montana  the  Constitution  guar- 
antees women  a  vote  on  local  taxation.     In    New  York,  women 
vote  at  school  elections  (3,000    voted  in  Binghamton  in  1890),  at 
waterworks  elections,  and  on  questions  of  paving,  grading,  drain- 
age, street  lighting,  and   other   local    improvements ;  47   women 
voted  at  the  State  election  in  1887,  and  were  not  punished.     In 
Pennsylvania  they  vote  on  local  improvements  (paving,  etc.),  by 
signing  or  refusing  to   sign   petitions   therefor.     In  1889,  a  joint 
committee  of  Congress  reported  in  favor  of  amending  the  United 
States  Constitution  to  relieve   the  women  of  the  whole  country 
(about  13,000,000)  from  all  disfranchisement.     Congress  did  not 
act  upon  these  reports.     Twenty-nine  States   and  Territories,  in 
all,  have  given  women  some  form  of  suffrage. 

Women's  Christian  Temperance  Union,  The. —  Unques- 
tionably the  most  powerful  agency  at  work  in  the  cause  of 
temperance  is  the  Women's  Christian  Temperance  Union.  The 
object  of  the  Union  is  thus  defined  :  To  unify  throughout  the 
world  the  work  of  women  in  temperance  and  social  reform  and 
to  circulate  a  petition  addressed  to  all  the  governments  of  the 


434  WOMEN'S  CHRISTIAN  TEMPERANCE  UNION. 

world  for  the  overthrow  of  the  alcohol  and  opium  trades. 
Methods :  Preventive,  Educational,  Evangelistic,  Social,  and 
Legal.  Time  of  Prayer :  Noontide.  Badge :  A  Knot  of  White 
Ribbon.  Watchwords:  Agitate!  Organize! 

The  Union  has  been  actively  at  work  under  its  present  organi- 
zation since  1874,  and  its  aims  are  accomplished  by  the  more 
modern  methods  of  temperance  agitation,  which  are  along  the 
line  of  education.  The  Union  has  a  newspaper,  which  is  published 
in  Chicago,  and  has  a  wide  circulation.  It  is  published  by  a  stock 
company,  which  also  conducts  the  other  publishing  business  of 
the  Union,  which  is  very  extensive,  over  125,000,000  pages 
having  been  published  in  1891.  In  order  to  impress  the  coming 
generation  with  the  evils  of  the  drink  habit,  the  Union  a  few  years 
ago  sought  to  have  the  study  of  what  is  called  scientific  temper- 
ance introduced  as  a  study  in  the  common  schools.  Thirty-four 
States,  through  the  efforts  of  the  Union,  have  adopted  laws 
requiring  in  the  public  schools  the  study  of  Scientific  Tem- 
perance. Laws  have  also  been  secured  forbidding  the  sale  of 
tobacco  to  minors,  and  the  members  of  the  Union  in  all  parts  of 
the  world  are  collecting  a  monster  petition  against  legalizing  the 
sale  of  alcoholics  and  opium,  which  will  be  presented  to  the  rulers 
of  the  civilized  nations  as  soon  as  two  million  names  have  been 
secured. 

The  Headquarters  of  the  Union  in  this  country  are  in  Chi- 
cago, where  there  is  in  course  of  erection  the  Woman's  Temperance 
Temple,  which  will  cost  over  one  million  dollars.  The  Woman's 
National  Temperance  Hospital  is  also  in  Chicago.  Connected 
with  the  Publication  House  is  a  Lecture  Bureau  which  sends 
speakers  to  all  parts  of  the  country.  The  Union  has  interna- 
tional connections,  already  having  auxiliary  unions  at  work  in 
thirty-three  different  nationalities.  In  this  country  there  are 
10,000  local  unions,  having  a  membership  and  following  of  nearly 
500,000.  A  notable  feature  of  the  organization  is  that  it  is  con- 
ducted entirely  by  women.  Besides  its  work  in  the  temperance 
cause,  the  Union  has  accomplished  great  reforms  in  the  manage- 
ment of  Industrial  Homes  for  girls,  and  many  of  these  homes 
have  been  established  solely  through  its  efforts.  Laws  for  the 
better  protection  of  women  and  girls,  refuges  for  abandoned 
women,  and  legislation  raising  the  age  of  consent  have  all  been 
secured  through  a  department  for  the  promotion  of  social  purity, 
which  is  under  the  supervision  of  the  President,  Frances  E.  Wil- 
lard.  The  officers  of  the  National  Organization  are  :  President, 
Frances  E.  Willard,  Evanston,  111. ;  Corresponding  Secretary, 
Caroline  B.  Buell,  Chicago;  Recording  Secretary,  Mary  A. 
Woodbridge,  Ravenna,  Ohio ;  Treasurer,  Esther  Pugh,  Chicago. 


WORLD'S  COLUMBIAN  EXPOSITION.  435 

Wood-Pulp  Miller.     (See  Nicknames  of  Famous  Americans.) 
Wool,  Production  of.     (See  Agriculture.) 
World's  Columbian  Exposition,  The. 

State  Exhibits.  Foreign  Exhibits. 

Buildings.  Columbus  Celebrations. 

Previous  Expositions.        World's  Congress  Auxiliary. 

In  1887,  the  proposition  to  celebrate  the  four  hundredth 
anniversary  of  the  discovery  of  America  by  an  International 
Exposition  of  arts,  industries,  and  manufactures,  and  of  the  prod- 
ucts of  the  soil,  mine,  and  sea  was  put  forth.  In  1889,  the  lead- 
ing cities  of  the  East,  besides  Chicago,  St.  Louis,  and  Cincinnati,  of 
the  West,  competed  with  one  another  for  the  site  of  the  Exposi- 
tion. The  contest  was  reduced  to  Chicago  and  New  York,  and 
Chicago  won.  The  act  providing  for  the  holding  of  the  Exposi- 
tion was  approved  on  April  25,  1890.  It  authorized  the  ap- 
pointment of  commissioners  who  should  organize  the  Exposi- 
tion, and  when  these  preliminaries  were  completed,  the  President 
was  required  to  make  a  public  proclamation  of  the  fact  and 
officially  invite  "  all  the  nations  of  the  earth  "  to  participate  in  the 
Exposition.  This  proclamation  was  issued  December  24, 1890. 

The  following  States  and  Territories  made  Appropria- 
tions toward  expenses  at  the  fair  in  the  amounts  named : 
Arizona,  $30,000;  California,  $300,000;  Colorado,  $100,000; 
Delaware,  $10,000  ;  Idaho,  $20,000;  Illinois,  $800,000;  Indiana, 
$75,000  ;  Iowa,  $50,000  ;  Maine,  $40,000  ;  Massachusetts,  $75,- 
000 ;  Michigan,  $100,000;  Minnesota,  $50,000;  Missouri,  $150,- 
000;  Montana,  $50,000;  Nebraska,  $50,000;  New  Hampshire, 
$25,000;  New  Jersey,  $20,000;  New  Mexico,  $25,000  ;  North 
Carolina,  $25,000 ;  North  Dakota,  $25,000 ;  Ohio,  $100,000  ; 
Pennsylvania,  $300,000 ;  Rhode  Island,  $25,000 ;  Vermont, 
$20,000  ;  Washington,  $100,000  ;  West  Virginia,  $40,000  ;  Wis- 
consin, $65,000  ;  Wyoming,  $30,000  ;  total,  $2,700,000.  In  other 
States'"  upwards  of  a  million  dollars  was  subscribed  by  individuals 
Practically  all  of  the  civilized  nations  of  the  world  will  be  repre- 
sented by  exhibits. 

Jackson  Park,  the  site  of  the  Exposition,  is  in  the  south- 
eastern part  of  the  city  of  Chicago.  The  section  set  apart  for 
the  site  of  the  Exposition  covered  666  acres,  overlooking  Lake 
Michigan,  with  a  park  front  a  mile  and  a  half  long.  The  money 
spent  in  grading  and  filling  this  site,  which  originally  was  a  half 
marsh  and  half  prairie,  was  $450,400  ;  in  landscape  gardening 
$323,490  ;  in  viaducts  and  bridges,  $125,000;  in  piers,  $70,000; 
in  waterway  improvements,  $225,000  J  in  railways  (to  the  park) 


436  WORLD'S  COLUMBIAN  EXPOSITION. 

1500,000 ;  steam  plant,  $800,000  ;  electricity,  $500,000  ;  statuary 
on  buildings,  $100,000;  vases,  lamps,  ami  posts,  $50,000  ;  sew- 
erage, water  supply,  etc.,  $800,000.  The  Income  of  the  Exposi- 
tion from  all  sources  is  estimated  at  $23,000,000,  including 
$5,628,000  stock-subscriptions,  $5,000,000  Chicago  city  bonds, 
gate  receipts  (estimated),  $10,000,000  ;  concessions,  $1,500,000  ; 
salvage,  $1,000,000 ;  interest,  $27,000.  This  was  supplemented 
by  a  bill  introduced  in  Congress  for  the  appropriation  of  $5,- 
000,000  by  the  government. 

The  plans  for  the  Dedication  of  the  Exposition  buildings, 
were  decided  upon  as  follows  :  On  October  12,  1892,  a  national 
salute,  and,  in  the  early  part  of  the  forenoon,  the  troops,  both  of 
the  regular  army  and  the  national  guard,  assembled  under  the 
command  of  Gen.  Nelson  A.  Miles,  U.  S.  A.,  and  reviewed  by  the 
President  of  the  United  States  at  1 1  A.  M.  Immediately  after 
the  review,  the  ceremonies  proper  in  the  great  manufacturers' 
building,  a  march  by  the  orchestra,  composed  especially  for  the 
occasion  by  John  K.  Payne ;  2,  a  prayer  by  Bishop  Charles  II. 
Fowler,  D.  D.,  LL.  D.,  of  California ;  3,  presentation  by  the 
chief  of  construction,  Mr.  Burnham,  of  the  master  artists  of  the 
Exposition  and  their  completed  work ;  4,  report  by  the  director- 
general  of  the  Exposition,  Col.  George  R.  Davis ;  5,  presentation 
of  the  buildings  to  the  president  of  the  national  commission  by 
the  president  of  the  local  directory ;  6,  vocal  chorus,  "  The 
Heavens  Are  Telling,"  Haydn ;  7,  presentation  of  the  buildings 
to  the  President  of  the  United  States  by  the  president  of  the 
national  commission ;  8,  march  and  chorus  from  "  The  Ruins  of 
Athens,"  Beethoven ;  9,  dedication  of  the  buildings  by  the  Presi- 
dent of  the  United  States;  10,  hallelujah  chorus  from  "The 
Messiah,"  Handel;  11,  dedicatory  oration,  by  Hon.  W.  C.  P. 
Breckinridge  of  Kentucky;  12,  dedicatory  ode,  words  by  Miss 
Harriet  Monroe,  music  by  Professor  Chadwick;  13,  "  The  Star 
Spangled  Banner  "  and  "  America,"  with  grand  chorus  and  full 
orchestral  accompaniment ;  14,  national  salute.  In  the  evening 
a  magnificent  display  of  fireworks,  and  the  grand  allegoric  parade, 
the  "  Procession  of  the  Centuries."  On  October  13,  receptions, 
military  manoeuvres,  and  a  grand  dress  parade  of  all  the  troops, 
with  more  pyrotechnics  and  a  repetition  of  the  allegoric  "  Pro- 
cession of  the  Centuries."  A  grand  Civic  and  Industrial 
Display,  including  illustrations  of  the  leading  events  in  the  life 
of  Columbus,  and  the  history  of  the  country.  A  dedication  ball 
in  the  evening. 

The  Exposition  Buildings,  for  the  construction  of  which 
$6,740,000  was  appropriated,  were  designed  to  cover  an  area  under 
roof  of  150  acres,  equal  to  the  area  under  roof  of  the  Paris  (1889), 


WOBLD'S  COLUMBIAN  EXPOSITION.  437 

the  Philadelphia  (1876),  and  the  Vienna  (1873)  Expositions  com- 
bined. This  area  of  150  acres  is  exclusive  of  the  State  and  for- 
eign buildings.  The  Administration  Building  is  pronounced 
the  gem  and  crown  of  the  Exposition  palaces.  It  is  located  at 
the  west  end  of  the  great  court  in  the  southern  part  of  the  site, 
looking  eastward,  and  at  its  rear  are  the  transportation  facilities 
and  depots.  The  most  conspicuous  object  on  the  grounds  is  the 
gilded  dome  of  this  lofty  building.  This  imposing  edifice  cost 
about  $450,000.  It  .covers  an  area  of  260  feet  square,  and  con- 
sists of  four  pavilions  84  feet  square,  one  at  each  of  the  four 
angles  of  the  square  and  connected  by  a  great  central  octagonal 
dome  120  feet  in  diameter  and  220  feet  in  height.  The  general 
design  is  in  the  style  of  the  French  Renaissance.  All  the  depart- 
ments and  most  of  the  subordinate  departments  have  exhibits. 
One  of  the  unique  exhibits  is  that  of  the  Navy  Department,  a 
feature  of  which  is  a  full  sized  model  348  feet  long  of  one  of  the 
new  coast-line  battleships,  built  by  the  Cramps  at  Philadelphia. 
This  Imitation  Battleship  of  1893  is  erected  on  piling  on  the 
Lake  front  in  the  northeast  portion  of  Jackson  Park.  It  is  sur- 
rounded by  water,  and  has  the  appearance  of  being  moored  to  a 
wharf.  The  structure  will  have  all  the  fittings  that  belong  to 
the  actual  ship,  such  as  guns,  turrets,  torpedo  tubes,  torpedo  nets 
and  booms,  with  boats,  anchors,  chain  cables,  davits,  awnings, 
deck  fittings,  etc.,  etc.,  together  with  all  appliances  for  working 
the  same.  Officers,  seamen,  mechanics,  and  marines  are  detailed 
by  the  navy  department  during  the  Exposition,  and  the  discipline 
and  mode  of  life  on  our  naval  vessels  are  completely  shown. 
The  Transportation  Building  is  exquisitely  refined  and 
simple  in  architectural  treatment,  although  it  is  very  rich  and 
elaborate  in  detail.  In  style  it  savors  much  of  the  Romanesque. 
The  main  building  measures  960  x  250  feet,  and  cost  $300,000. 
The  transportation  exhibits  naturally  include  everything  of  what- 
soever name  or  sort,  devoted  to  the  purpose  of  transportation, 
and  range  from  a  baby  carriage  to  a  mogul  engine,  from  a  cash 
conveyor  to  a  balloon  or  carrier  pigeon. 

Machinery  Hall  has  been  pronounced  by  many  architects 
second  only  to  the  Administration  Building  in  architectural 
beauty.  The  building  is  spanned  by  three  arched  trusses  and  the 
interior  presents  the  appearance  of  three  railroad  train-houses, 
side  by  side,  surrounded  on  all  of  the  four  sides  by  a  gallery  fifty 
feet  wide.  The  trusses  are  built  separately,  so  that  they  can  be 
taken  down  and  sold  for  use  as  railroad  train-houses.  In  each 
of  the  long  naves  there  is  an  elevated  travelling-crane  running 
from  end  to  end  of  the  building  for  the  purpose  of  moving 
machinery.  These  platforms  are  "built  so  that  visitors  may  view 
the  operation  of  the  machinery  from  them. 


438  WORLD'S  COLUMBIAN  EXPOSITION. 

Facing  the  great  lagoon  in  the  northwestern  part  of  the  park 
is  the  superb  Woman's  Building,  designed  by  a  woman,  Miss 
Hayden,  of  Boston.  The  structure  is  200  by  400  feet,  and  cost 
$120,000.  Italian  Renaissance  is  the  style  selected.  The  main 
grouping  consists  of  a  centre  pavilion,  flanked  at  each  end  with 
corner  pavilions,  connected  in  the  first  story  by  open  arcades  in 
the  curtains,  forming  a  shady  promenade  the  whole  length  of  the 
structure.  The  first  story  is  raised  about  ten  feet  from  the 
ground  line,  and  a  wide  staircase  leads  to  the  centre  pavilion. 
This  pavilion,  forming  the  main  triple-arched  entrance,  with  an 
open  colonnade  in  the  second  story,  is  finished  with  a  low  and 
beautifully  proportioned  pediment,  enriched  with  a  highly  elabo- 
rate bas-relief.  Here  are  located  the  Hanging  Gardens,  and 
also  the  committee-rooms  of  the  Board  of  Lady  Managers. 

The  building  for  Manufactures  and  Liberal  Arts  is  the 
largest  exposition  building  ever  erected  or  contemplated.  It  is 
1,G»7  feet  long  by  787  feet  wide,  its  greatest  dimension  being 
north  and  south.  It  covers  an  area  of  30£  acres.  It  is  rectangu- 
lar in  form,  its  central  hall  being  surrounded  by  a  nave  and  two 
galleries.  The  cost  of  the  building  is  $1,500,000.  The  feature 
of  the  building  is  the  great  central  hall.  It  has  a  clear  space  of 
1,280  feet  by  380  feet.  Its  roof  rises  to  a  height  of  245£  feet  at  the 
apex,  and  the  380  feet  space  is  covered  by  a  single  arched  span, 
without  a  supporting  column.  The  height  from  the  floor  to  the 
centre  of  the  arch  is  201  feet,  clear,  and  the  height  of  the  lantern 
above  the  arch  is  44£  feet.  Twenty-two  steel  arches  support 
the  centre  of  the  roof.  Each  arch  weighs  125  tons,  and  more 
than  5,000  tons  of  steel  enter  into  the  construction  of  the  hall. 
Only  by  comparison  with  existing  structures  can  any  adequate 
idea  be  formed  of  the  size  of  this  building.  It  is  three  times  as 
large  as  St.  Peter's  Cathedral  in  Rome,  and  the  largest 
church  in  Chicago  can  be  placed  within  the  vestibule  of  St. 
Peter's.  Its  central  hall,  which  occupies  but  one  third  of  its 
area,  will  comfortably  seat  50,000  people.  The  building  is  in 
the  Corinthian  style  of  architecture  and  is  severely  classic. 

The  Hall  of  Mines  and  Mining  is  350  by  700  feet.  Its 
architecture  is  the  early  Italian  Renaissance,  the  exterior  presenting 
a  massive  though  graceful  appearance.  The  principal  fronts 
display  enormous  arched  entrances,  richly  embellished  with 
sculptural  decorations,  emblematic  of  mining  and  its  allied  indus- 
tries. Marbles  of  different  hues  are  used  as  facings,  being  also  a 
part  of  the  mining  exhibit.  The  main  fronts  are  65  feet  high  and 
the  main  entrances  90  feet  high.  The  roof  is  of  steel  cantilever 
trusses  supported  by  steel  columns  65  feet  apart  longitudinally 
and  115  feet  and  57  feet  6  inches  wide  transversely,  making  clear 


WORLD'S  COLUMBIAN  EXPOSITION. 


439 


space  in  the  centre  of  the  building  630  feet  long  and  115  feet 
wide,  and  on  each  side  a  space  of  57  feet  6  inches  by  630  feet, 
leaving  the  central  space  encumbered  by  only  sixteen  supporting 
posts.  It  is  said  that  the  cantilever  system  as  applied  to  roofs 
was  never  before  used  on  so  large  a  scale.  The  cost  of  this 
building  is  $260,000,  and  it  covers  an  area  of  5.6  acres. 

Grecian-Ionic  in  style,  the  Fine  Arts  Building  is  a  pure 
type  of  the  most  refined  classic  architecture.  It  cost  over  $500,- 
000.  The  building  is  oblong,  and  is  500  by  320  feet,  intersected 
north,  east,  south,  and  west  by  a  great  nave  and  transept  100 
feet  wide  and  70  feet  high,  at  the  intersection  of  which  is  a  great 
dome  60  feet  in  diameter.  The  building  is  125  feet  to  the  top 
of  the  dome,  which  is  surmounted  by  a  colossal  statue  of  the 
type  of  famous  figures  of  Winged  Victory.  The  transept  has  a 
clear  space  through  the  centre  of  60  feet,  being  lighted  entirely 
from  above.  On  either  side  are  galleries  20  feet  wide  and  24 
feet  above  the  floor.  The  Collections  of  sculpture  are  displayed 
on  the  main  floor  of  the  nave  and  transept,  and  on  the  walls  both 
of  the  ground  floor  and  of  the  galleries  are  ample  areas  for  dis- 
playing the  paintings  and  sculptured  panels  in  relief.  The 
corners  made  by  the  crossing  of  the  nave  and  transept  are  filled 
with  small  picture  galleries.  Around  the  entire  building  are 
galleries  40  feet  wide,  forming  a  continuous  promenade  around 
the  classic  structure.  The  main  building  is  entered  by  four 
Great  Portals,  richly  ornamented  with  architectural  sculpture 
and  approached  by  broad  flights  of  steps.  The  walls  of  the 
loggia  of  the  colonnades  are  highly  decorated  with  mural  paintings, 
illustrating  the  history  and  progress  of  the  arts.  The  frieze  of 
the  exterior  walls  and  the  pediments  of  the  principal  entrances 
are  ornamented  with  sculptures  and  portraits  in  bas-relief  of 
the  masters  of  ancient  art.  The  general  tone  of  color  is  light 
gray  stone. 

The  Horticultural  Building  is  1,000  feet  long,  with  an  ex- 
treme width  of  250  feet,  and  costs  $200,000.  The  plan  is  a 
central  pavilion  with  two  end  pavilions,  each  connected  with  the 
central  one  by  front  and  rear  curtains,  forming  two  interior  courts, 
each  88  by  270  feet.  These  courts  are  beautifully  decorated  in 
color  and  planted  with  ornamental  shrubs  and  flowers.  The 
centre  pavilion  is  roofed  by  a  crystal  dome  187  feet  in  diameter 
and  113  feet  high,  under  which  are  exhibited  the  tallest  palms, 
bamboos,  and  tree  ferns.  It  was  designed  to  contain  not  only  a 
complete  exhibit  of  dairy  products,  but  also  a  dairy  school,  in 
connection  with  which  will  be  conducted  a  series  of  tests  for  de- 
termining the  relative  merits  of  different  breeds  of  dairy  cattle  as 
milk  and  butter  producers. 


440  WORLD'S  COLUMBIAN  EXPOSITION. 

The  Dairy  School,  it  is  believed,  will  he  most  instructive  and 
valuable  to  agriculturists.  The  school  will  include  a  contest  be- 
tween both  herds  and  individuals  of  the  chief  breeds  of  dairy 
cattle,  with  a  view  of  ascertaining  the  respective  merits  of  each  in 
milk-giving  and  butter-producing.  Each  herd  will  be  charged 
each  day  with  the  food  consumed,  accurately  weighed,  and  will 
be  credited  with  the  milk  and  butter  produced.  Spectators  will 
be  able  to  obtain  an  excellent  view  of  the  processes  in  all  their 
stages.  The  Tests  and  all  details  of  management  will  be  under 
rules  prepared  by  a  committee  composed  of  one  member  from 
each  of  the  dairy  cattle  associations  in  the  United  States,  three 
from  the  Columbian  Dairy  Association,  three  from  the  agricultural 
colleges  and  United  States  experimental  stations,  and  one  from 
the  manufacturers  of  dairy  utensils.  The  results  of  this  test  and 
of  the  exhibition,  which  will  be  made  of  the  latest  and  most  ad- 
vanced scientific  methods  known  in  connection  with  the  feeding 
and  care  of  cattle,  the  treatment  of  milk,  and  the  production  of 
butter  and  cheese,  cannot  fail  to  be  of  great  and  lasting  benefit  to 
the  dairy  interests  of  this  country. 

One  of  the  most  artistic  of  the  Exposition  palaces  is  the 
Fisheries  Building,  which  embraces  a  large  central  structure 
with  two  smaller  polygonal  buildings  connected  with  it  on  either 
end  by  arcades.  It  cost  $200,000.  The  extreme  length  of  the 
building  is  1,100  feet  and  the  width  200  feet.  In  the  central 
portion  is  the  general  fisheries  exhibit.  In  one  of  the  polygonal 
buildings  is  the  angling  exhibit  and  in  the  other  the  aquaria. 
The  exterior  of  the  building  is  Spanish-Romanesque,  which  con- 
trasts agreeably  in  appearance  with  that  of  the  other  buildings. 
The  glass  fronts  of  the  aquaria  are  in  length  about  575  feet 
and  have  3,000  square  feet  of  surface.  They  make  a  panorama 
never  before  seen  in  any  exhibition  and  rival  the  great  perma- 
nent aquariums  of  the  world,  not  only  in  size,  but  in  all  other 
respects.  The  total  Water  Capacity  of  the  aquaria,  exclusive 
of  reservoirs,  is  18,725  cubic  feet,  or  140,000  gallons.  This 
weighs  1,192,425  pounds,  or  almost  600  tons.  In  the  entire  salt- 
water circulation,  including  reservoirs,  there  are  about  80,000 
gallons.  The  supply  of  sea  water  was  secured  by  evaporating 
the  necessary  quantity  at  the  Woods  IIoll  station  of  the  United 
States  fish  commission  to  about  one  fifth  its  bulk,  thus  reducing 
both  quantity  and  weight  for  transportation  about  80  per  cent. 
The  fresh  water  required  to  restore  it  to  its  proper  density  was 
supplied  from  Lake  Michigan.  In  transporting  the  marine  fishes 
to  Chicago  from  the  coast  there  was  an  addition  of  probably 
o,000  gallons  of  pure  sea  water  to  the  supply  on  each  trip. 
The  Fish  Exhibit  is  a  wonderful  one,  and  not  the  least  i 


WORLD'S  COLUMBIAN  EXPOSITION.  441 

esting  portion  of  it  is  the  aquarial  or  live  fish  display.  This  is 
approached  through  one  of  the  arcades  from  the  main  building. 
In  the  centre  of  the  polygonal  building  is  a  rotunda  60  feet  ir, 
diameter,  in  the  middle  of  which  is  a  basin  or  pool  twenty-six  feet 
wide,  from  which  rises  a  towering  mass  of  rocks  covered  with 
moss  and  lichens.  From  clefts  and  crevices  in  the  rocks  crystal 
streams  of  water  gush  and  drop  to  the  masses  of  reeds,  rushes, 
and  ornamental  semi-aquatic  plants  in  the  basin  below.  In  this 
pool  gorgeous  gold  fishes,  golden  ides,  golden  trench,  and  other 
lishes  disport.  From  the  rotunda  one  side  of  the  larger  series  of 
aquaria  may  be  viewed.  These  are  ten  in  number,  and  have  a 
capacity  of  7,000  to  27,000  gallons  of  water  each. 

The  Forestry  Building  is,  in  appearance,  perhaps  the  most 
novel  of  all  the  Exposition  structures.  Its  dimensions  are  200  by 
500  feet,  and  the  cost  was  $200,000.  To  a  remarkable  degree  its 
architecture  is  of  the  rustic  order.  On  all  four  sides  of  the  build- 
ing is  a  veranda,  supporting  the  roof  of  which  is  a  colonnade 
consisting  of  a  series  of  columns  composed  of  three  tree  trunks 
each  25  feet  in  length,  one  of  them  from  16  to  20  inches  in  diam- 
eter and  the  others  smaller.  All  of  these  trunks  are  left  in  their 
natural  state  with  bark  iindisturbed.  They  are  contributed  by 
the  different  States  and  Territories  of  the  Union  and  by  foreign 
countries,  each  furnishing  specimens  of  its  most  characteristic 
trees.  The  sides  of  the  building  are  constructed  of  slabs  with 
the  bark  removed.  The  window  frames  are  treated  in  the  sajne 
rustic  manner  as  is  the  rest  of  the  building.  The  main  entrance 
is  elaborately  finished  in  different  kinds  of  wood,  the  material 
and  workmanship  being  contributed  by  the  wood-workers  of 
the  world.  The  other  entrances  are  finished  artistically  to 
represent  the  woods  of  different  countries  and  regions.  The 
roof  is  thatched,  not  with  straw,  as  was  erroneously  stated  some 
time  ago,  but  with  tanbark  and  other  barks.  The  interior  of  the 
building  is  finished  in»  various  woods  in  a  way  to  show  their 
beautiful  graining,  susceptibility  to  polish,  etc.  The  visitor  can 
make  no  mistake  as  to  the  kinds  of  tree  trunks  which  form  the 
colonnade,  for  he  will  see  upon  each  one  a  tablet  upon  which  are 
inscribed  the  common  and  scientific  name,  the  State  or  country 
from  which  the  trunk  was  contributed,  and  other  pertinent  infor- 
mation, such  as  the  approximate  quantity  of  such  timber  in  the 
region  whence  it  came.  Surmounting  the  cornice  of  the  veranda 
and  extending,  all  around  the  building  are  numerous  flagstaffs, 
bearing  the  colors,  coats-of-arms,  etc.,  of  the  nations  and  States 
represented  in  the  exhibits  inside. 

The   Forestry  Building  contains  a  most  varied   exhibition   of 
Forest  Products  in  general  —  the  most  complete  which  could 


442  WORLD'S  COLUMBIAN  EXPOSITION. 

be  gathered  together.  It  contains  logs  and  sections  of  trees, 
worked  lumber  in  the  form  of  shingles,  flooring,  casing,  etc. 
There  are  shown  here  rare  woods  and  barks,  mosses,  galls, 
wood  pulp,  wooden  ware,  rattan,  rosins,  gums,  vegetable  ivory,  etc. 

The  Electrical  Building,  the  seat  of  perhaps  the  most  novel 
and  brilliant  exhibit  in  the  exposition,  is  based  upon  a  nave  115 
feet  wide  and  114  feet  high,  crossed  in  the  middle  by  a  transept 
of  similar  dimensions.  The  building  is  an  attractive  one,  with 
many  towers,  and  spires,  and  masts  for  display  of  banners  and 
electric  lights  at  night.  In  the  design  of  this  building  it  was 
proposed  by  the  architects  to  so  devise  the  details  and  general 
outlines  that  they  might  be  capable  of  providing  an  electrical 
illumination  by  night  on  a  scale  hitherto  unknown,  the  flagstaffs, 
open  porticoes,  and  towers  being  especially  arranged  with  this  in 
view.  The  building  cost  $375,000. 

One  of  the  magnificent  structures  raised  for  the  Exposition  is 
the  Agricultural  Building.  The  style  of  architecture  is 
classic  Renaissance.  The  building  is  five  hundred  by  eight  hun- 
dred feet,  its  longest  dimensions  being  east  and  west.  The  north 
line  of  the  building  is  almost  on  a  line  with  the  pier  extending 
into  the  lake,  on  which  heroic  columns,  emblematic  of  the  thirteen 
original  States,  are  raised.  A  lagoon  stretches  out  along  this 
entire  front  of  the  building.  The  east  front  looks  out  into  a 
harbor  which  affords  refuge  for  numerous  pleasure  craft.  The 
entire  west  exposure  of  the  building  faces  a  branch  of  the  lagoon 
that  extends  along  the  north  side.  With  these  picturesque  sur- 
roundings as  an  inspiration,  the  architects  have  brought  out 
designs  that  have  been  pronounced  all  but  faultless.  For  a  single 
story  building  the  design  is  bold  and  heroic.  The  general  cornice 
line  is  sixty-five  feet  above  grade.  On  either  side  of  the  main 
entrance  are  mammoth  Corinthian  Pillars  fifty  feet  high  and 
five  feet  in  diameter.  On  each  corner  and  from  the  centre  of  the 
building  pavilions  are  reared,  the  centre  <one  being  one  hundred 
and  forty-four  feet  square.  The  corner  pavilions  are  connected 
by  curtains,  forming  a  continuous  arcade  around  the  top  of  the 
building.  All  through  the  main  vestibule  statuary  has  been 
designed,  illustrative  of  the  agricultural  industry.  Similar  de- 
signs are  grouped  about  all  of  the  grand  entrances  in  the  most 
elaborate  manner.  The  corner  pavilions  are  surmounted  by 
domes  ninety-six  feet  high  and  above  these  tower  groups  of 
statuary.  The  design  for  these  domes  is  that  of  three  women,  of 
herculean  proportions,  supporting  a  mammoth  globe.  To  the 
southward  of  the  Agricultural  Building  is  a  spacious  structure 
devoted  chiefly  to  a  Livestock  and  Agricultural  Assem- 
bly hall.  This  building  is  conveniently  near  one  of  the  stations 


WORLD'S  COLUMBIAN  EXPOSITION".  443 

of  the  elevated  railway.  It  is  a  very  handsome  building  and  was 
designed  t-o  be  the  common  meeting  point  for  all  persons  inter- 
ested in  live  stock  and  agricultural  pursuits.  An  assembly  room, 
seating  fifteen  hundred  persons,  furnishes  facilities  for  let-tin  < •-. 
by  gentlemen  eminent  in  their  special  fields  of  work,  embracing 
every  interest  connected  with  live  stock,  agriculture,  and  allied 
industries.  Such  a  building  was  never  erected  at  any  exposition, 
and  its  construction  here  shows  that  the  board  of  directors  pur- 
posed affording  every  desirable  facility  that  they  could  furnish  to 
aid  the  great  live  stock  and  agricultural  interests.  The  Agricul- 
tural and  Live  Stock  Buildings  cost  upwards  of  $800,000. 

World's  Congress  Auxiliary. —  The  World's  Congress 
Auxiliary  is  an  organization  authorized  and  supported  by  the 
Exposition  corporation  for  the  purpose  of  bringing  to  Chicago  a 
series  of  world's  conventions  of  leaders  in  the  various  depart- 
ments of  human  progress  during  the  exposition  season  of  1893. 
The  auxiliary  has  also  been  recognized  by  the  Government  of  the 
United  States  as  the  appropriate  agency  to  conduct  this  impor- 
tant work.  Its  general  announcement  was  sent  to  foreign  govern- 
ments by  the  department  of  S.tate,  and  an  appropriation  for  its 
expenses  was  made  by  Congress.  The  Congress  will  hold  special 
sessions  at  which  all  questions  affecting  the  moral,  industrial,  and 
social  improvement  of  the  world  will  be  discussed,  and  the  aim 
will  be  to  have  the  ablest  living  representatives  in  science,  reli- 
gion, art,  music,  literature,  social  science,  education,  philosophy, 
etc.,  lend  their  presence  to  the  sessions.  The  discussions  of  the 
Congress,  the  addresses  made,  and  the  papers  read,  it  is  expected, 
will  be  preserved  in  encyclopedic  form. 

Other  Columbus  Celebrations. —  A  most  interesting 
feature  of  the  quadro-centenary  will  be  a  naval  review  in  New 
York  Harbor  in  April,  1893,  to  which  foreign  nations  have  been 
invited  to  send  ships  of-  war  to  join  the  United  States  Navy  in 
rendezvous  at  Hampton  Roads,  and  to  proceed  thence  to  New 
York.  It  is  also  proposed  to  have  the  13,000,000  public  School 
Children  in  the  United  States,  on  a  given  day,  unite  in  celebrat- 
ing the  discovery  of  America,  with  fitting  exercises.  Brazil 
will  also  commemorate  the  400th  anniversary  of  the  discovery  of 
America  by  a  world's  fair  to  be  held  at  Rb  de  Janeiro,  under 
government  auspices,  beginning  November,  1892.  In  Spain  a 
royal  decree  was  issued, "January  10,  1891,  providing  for  the  ap- 
pointment of  a  committee  to  organize  the  celebration  of  the 
quadro-centenary  of  the  discovery  of  America.  It  is  provided  by 
the  decree  that  Portugal  and  the  United  States  be  invited  to  be 
represented  on  the  committee.  A  feature  of  the  celebration  will 
be  a  cono-ress  to  be  held  at  Huelvato  commemorate  the  departure 


444  WORLD'S  COLUMBIAN  EXPOSITION. 

of  Columbus.  In  Madrid  there  will  be  exhibitions  of  the  arts 
and  industries  of  the  period  of  Columbus.  The  Madrid  exposition 
will  be  opened  September  12,  1892,  and  will  close.  December  31, 
1892.  The  exhibits  will  be  classified  in  their  historical  order,  be- 
ginning with  plans,  models,  reproductions,  or  drawings  of  ancient 
American  caverns,'  and  everything  showing  any  trace  of  their 
having  been  used  as  human  dwellings.  Plans  and  models  of 
prehistoric  American  monuments  and  dwellings,  as  well  as  stone 
arms,  articles  made  of  horn  and  bones,  pottery,  and  ornaments, 
and  arms,  and  utensils  of  the  copper  and  bronze  ages  will  be 
exhibited.  Following  these  there  will  be  exhibits  of  all  kinds  of 
articles  of  this  historic  period.  The  quadro-centenary  will  be 
celebrated  at  Genoa,  the  Birthplace  of  Columbus,  under  the 
auspices  of  the  King  of  Italy.  An  exposition  of  Italian  and 
American  products  will  be  a  feature.  A  new  opera,  "  Columbus," 
composed  by  Baron  Franchetti,  will  be  presented,  and  there  will 
be  a  museum  01  Columbian  antiquities.  Columbia,  South 
America,  will  have  an  exposition  from  July  20  to  October  31, 
1892,  after  which  the  best  part  of  the  collection  will  be  sent  to 
Chicago.  The  Circulo  Colon -Cervantez,  a  Spanish  and  Spanish- 
American  Society  of  New  York  City,  will  celebrate  the  Landing 
of  Columbus,  October  12,1892,  with'a  grand  historical  pageant 
in  the  streets  of  New  York,  starting  from  the  Battery.  At 
Central  Park,  the  statue  of  Columbus  will  be  unveiled  "with  cere- 
monies. It  is  desired  to  make  this  a  public  holiday,  with  fire- 
works and  a  general  illumination  of  the  houses  of  the  city  at  night. 
The  exercises  are  in  charge  of  the  president  of  the  society,  Juan 
N.  Navarro,  consul-general  of  Mexico. 

Previous  World's  Fairs. —  The  first  World's  Exposition 
was  opened  in  London  in  1851  ;  its  buildings  covered  21  acres, 
the  number  of  visitors  was  6,039,195  in  141  days,  and  the  re- 
ceipts were  $1,780,000.  At  the  Paris  Exposition  of  1855,  the 
buildings  covered  24£  acres,  the  visitors  numbered  5,162,330,  in 
200  days,  and  the  receipts  were  $600,500.  The  London  Exposi- 
tion of  1862  was  open  171  days,  the  buildings  covered  231£ 
acres,  the  visitors  numbered  6,211,103,  and  the  receipts  were 
$2,300,000.  The  Paris  Exposition  of  1867  was  open  210  days, 
was  visited  by  8,805,969  persons,  and  the  receipts  aggregated 
$2,822,932.  The  buildings  covered  37  acres.  The  Vienna 
Exposition  of  1873  had  7,354,687  visitors,  the  buildings  covered 
40  acres,  and  the  receipts  were  $2,000,000  in  186  days. 

The  Philadelphia  Exposition  of  1876  was  opened  for 
159  days  beginning  May  10.  The  gross  receipts  were  $3,815,724  ; 
the  number  of  visitors  was  9,892,625.  The  buildings  covered 
60  acres.  The  average  daily  attendance  was  49,986.  The 


WYOMING.  445 

largest  attendance  on  any  one  day  was  274,919.  The  Paris 
Exposition  of  1878  covered  60  acres;  the  number  of  visitors  in 
194  days  was  16,032,725,  and  the  receipts  were  $2,531,650. 
Sydney,'  New  South  Wales,  held  an  exposition  in  1879,  which 
was  attended  by  1,117,536  persons,  and  Melbourne  held  one  in 
1 880,  which  was  attended  by  1,330,279  persons.  The  Glasgow 
Exposition  of  1888  was  open  for  161  days,  and  the  attendance 
was  5,748,379.  The  Largest  Attendance  at  any  exposition 
was  at  the  Paris  Exposition  of  1889,  which  was  open  185  days, 
was  attended  by  28,149,353  persons,  and  the  receipts  were  $8,- 
300,000. 

The  funds  for  the  Philadelphia  Centennial  Exposition  were 
raised  by  subscription  as  follows  :  City  of  Philadelphia,  $1,575,- 
000;  Pennsylvania,  $1,000,000  ;  New  Jersey,  $100,000;  Con- 
necticut, Delaware,  and  New  Hampshire,  $10,000  each;  Con- 
gress, $1,500,000;  Wilmington,  Del.,  £f>,000,  and  the  various 
States  contributed  $234,000  for  exhibits. 

World's   Congress    Auxiliary.     (See    World's  Columbian 

Exposition.) 

World's  Fairs.     (See  World's  Columbian  Exposition.) 

Wyoming. —  The  first  settlements  within  its  limits  were  made 
in  1834,  at  Fort  Laramie,  by  Americans.  There  was  considerable 
immigration  during  the  construction  of  the  Union  Pacific  Railroad, 
and  the  Territorial  organization  was  completed  on  May  10,  1869. 
Wyoming  was  admitted  into  the  Union,  July  10,  1890.  The 
main  chain  of  the  Rockies  extends  across  the  State,  forming  what 
is  known  as  "  The  Divide."  A  large  part  of  the  State  is 
10,000  feet  above  sea  level.  Some  of  it  is  14,000  feet,  and  no 
part  of  it  is  less  than  6,000  feet  above  sea  level.  The  rivers  are 
the  Big  Horn,  Tongue,  Powder,  Green,  Little  Missouri,  North 
Platte,  Medicine  Bow,  Laramie,  and  Sweetwater. 

The  most  interesting  of  the  natural  features  of  Wyoming,  and 
those  which  have  most  attracted  the  attention  of  travellers,  are 
found  in  the  extreme  northwest  corner  of  the  Territory,  in  the 
section  known  as  the  Yellowstone  National  Park.  This 
wonderful  park  has  a  length  of  sixty-five  miles  north  and  south 
by  fifty-five  miles  in  width,  and  an  area  of  3,575  square  miles. 
No  part  of  it  is  less  than  6,000  feet  above  the  sea,  and  the  snow- 
covered  mountains  that  hem  in  the  valleys  on  every  side  rise  to  a 
height  of  12,000  feet.  It  is  a  land  of  wonders,  with  its  grand 
canons  and  geysers,  its  beautiful  lakes  an  drivers,  with  cataracts, 
cascades,  and  rapids  of  unsurpassed  beauty,  and  mountains 
towering  far  above  the  deep  and  rugged  valleys  through  which 
the  rapid  streams  flow. 


446  x-  Y-  z-  MISSION. 

Wyoming  lias  5,000  milt's  of  canals  for  irrigation  purposes, 
•'milt  at  a  cost  of  $10,000,001).  Grazing  is  the  chief  industry, 
there  being  on  its  ranges  upwards  of  a  million  cattle  and  as 
many  sheep.  The  raising  of  horses  is  also  a  leading  business. 
The  live-stock  interests  of  W yorning  have  upwards  of  $75,000,000 
of  capital  invested.  Gold  and  silver  mining  is  carried  on  with 
excellent  results.  There  are  extensive  coal-h'elds,  yielding  1,500,- 
000  tons  in  a  year,  and  employing  3,000  men. 

The  United  States  Garrisons  are  Fort  Russell,  Fort 
McKmney,  Fort  Washakie.  The  State  has  1,100  Hhoslione 
Indians  and  900  Arapahoes,  on  reservations.  The  population 
of  Wyoming  in  1880  was  20,798  ;  in  1890,  it  was  <>0,70f>.  The 
assessed  property  was  valued  at  $31,500,000;  the  manufactures 
aggregated  §898,494  in  a  year ;  the  acreage  of  farm  lands  was 
124,433,  valued  at  $835,895,  yielding  products  worth  $372,391. 
The  school  attendance  was  3|750  ;  the  number  of  miles  of  rail- 
roads in  1890  was  1,000  ;  the  newspapers  numbered  35. 

Cheyenne,  the  chief  city  and  the  capital,  with  a  population 
in  1890  of  11,090,  is  a  centre  for  railroads  and  supplies.  It  lias 
all  the  attributes  of  an  eastern  city.  The  second  city  is  Laramie, 
(population  in  1890  6,407),  which  is  also  a  bustling  place,  having 
many  industries,  good  schools,  and  many  churches.  Rock  Springs, 
the  third  city,  with  3,317  inhabitants,  is  the  coal-mining  centre. 
The  Governor  of  Wyoming  is  Ames  W.  Barber  (Republican). 
His  term  expires  January  2,  1893.  The  State  is  Republican. 

X.  Y.  Z.  Mission. —  An  interesting  incident,  and  one  which 
redounded  to  the  credit  of  the  United  States,  is  connected  with 
these  initials.  France  having  given  valuable  aid  to  the  colonies 
iu  the  Revolutionary  War,  requested  a  like  favor  for  herself  in 
her  war  with  Great  Britain  in  1789.  Washington,  however, 
persisted  in  maintaining  the  United  States  in  an  attitude  of  neu- 
trality, whereat  France  was  greatly  angered.  In  1797,  C.  C. 
Pinckney  was  sent  as  Minister  to  France  ;  about  the  same  time,  the 
French  Directory  announced  that  they  would  receive  no  more 
American  ministers.  Pinckney  was  ordered  to  quit  the  country. 
President  Adams  at  once  called  an  Extra  Session  of  Con- 
gress, before  which  he  made  an  address  in  which  he  said  that  he 
was  about  to  send  three  commissioners  to  France  in  the  hope  of 
making  peace.  The  French  navy  at  the  time  were  attacking  Amer- 
ican merchant  vessels,  and  the  navy.  (See  French  Spoliations 
Claims.)  The  envoys,  some  months  later,  reported  that  they  had 
been  received  by  Talleyrand  after  having  been  kept  waiting,  that 
in  other  respects  they  had  been  discourteously  treated,  and,  more- 
over, that  a  bribe  to  the  Directory  and  a  loan  to  the  French 
government  were  the  price  of  a  peaceable  arrangement  with  the 


YANKEE. 


447 


United  States.     In  their  report,  the  envoys  indicated  the   names 
of  the  persons  who  had  tried  to  bribe  them  as  X.  Y.  and  Z. 

The  result  of  this  new  insult  was  the  enkindling  of  a  War 
Spirit  in  the  country,  taking  advantage  of  which  the  Federal 
administration  passed  a  number  of  acts  to  make  the  nation  ready 
for  hostilities,  among  which  were  the  ordering  of  a  provisional 
army,  with  Washington  as  Commander-in-Chief,  the  increasing 
of  the  navy,  and  its  establishment  as  a  separate  department,  the 
negotiation  of  a  new  loan,  and  the  imposition  of  a  direct  tax. 
France,  however,  the  next  year  disavowed  any  authority  of  the 
persons  designated  as  X.  Y.  Z.  to  act  for  the  Directory,  and 
hastened  to  smooth  over  the  disagreement,  which  was  quickly 
accomplished.  Howe  v  e  r , 
the  vast  power  assumed  by 
the  Federalists  in  the  con- 
duct of  this  affair  with 
France  alarmed  the  public 
mind,  and  brought  about 
an  undercurrent  of  public 
sentiment,  antagonistic  to 
the  centralization  of  great 
power  in  the  government, 
which  ultimately  led  to  the 
downfall  of  the  Federalists. 
A  chief  instrumentality  in 
arousing  the  people  were 
the  two  acts  forced  through 
by  the  Federalists,  known 
as  the  Alien  and  the  Sedi- 
tion Laws  (which  see). 

Yankee.— The  lexicographers  have  differed  each  with  the" 
other  regarding  the  derivation  of  this  word.  The  most  widely 
accepted  explanation  of  its  origin  is  that  it  came  from  the  corrupt 
pronunciation  by  the  Indians  of  the  word  English  or  French 
Anglais.  The  Dutch  settlers  along  the  Hudson  first  applied  the 
word  to  the  New  England  people,  and  to  this  day  in  its  more 
general  application  it  refers  to  the  inhabitants  of  the  six  New 
England  States.  Englishmen,  and  other  foreigners,  however,  use 
the  term  as  referring  to  the  entire  body  of  Americans  ;  and  in 
the  South,  it  is  quite  coTiimon  to  speak  of  all  Northerners  as 
Yankees.  As  distinguished  from  "New  Englander,"  it  is  not 
nearly  so  complimentary  a  term;  in  fact,  Yankee  is  to  some 
people  suggestive  of  that  kind  of  shrewdness  which  is  synony- 
mous with  trickery. 

Yankee  Doodle.      (See  Songs  of  the  Nation.) 


PHILADELPHIA  Y.    M.   C.   A.    BUILDING. 


448  YOUNG  MEN'S  CHRISTIAN  ASSOCIATION. 

Young  Hickory-  (See  Nicknames  of  Famous  Americans.) 
Young  Hickory.  (See  Presidents  of  the  United  States.) 
Young  Men's  Christian  Association. —  The  founder  of  this 
widespread  religious  movement  was  George  Williams,  a  clerk  in 
a  London  dry-goods  house,  who,  in  1844,  organized  in  that  city 
the  first  association.  The  first  society  on  this  continent  was 
organized  in  1851  at  Montreal ;  the  second  was  organized  soon 
after  at  Boston.  There  are  to-day  1,385  associations.  The  aggre- 
gate membership  in  America  is  225,500  ;  there  are  231  Y.  M.  C.  A. 
buildings  valued  at  $9,946,085.  The  various  organizations  own 
649  libraries,  containing  upwards  of  450,000  volumes.  There 
are  1,186  secretaries  and  assistants,  and  the  current  expenses  of 
associations  in  1891  aggregated  $2,032,127.  The  total  number  of 
associations  in  the  world  is  4,151.  The  officers  of  the  Inter- 
national Committee  are  Chairman,  Cephas  Brainerd ;  Treasurer, 
Benjamin  C.  Wetmore ;  General  Secretary,  Richard  C.  Morse ; 
Board  of  Trustees:  Chairman,  J.  N.  Harris,  New  London,  Ct. ; 
Treasurer,  John  S.  Bussing,  New  York  City.  Headquarters, 
No.  40  East  Twenty-Third  Street,  New  York  City. 


BIOGRAPHICAL  STORY 


OF  THE 


Career,   with  Anecdotes,   Reminiscences,  and 
an  Account  of  the  Family  Life  of 

BENJAHIN  HARRISON 

The  Republican  Presidential  Nominee 


AND 


WHITELAW   REID 

The  Republican  Vice-Presidential  Nominee. 


449 


or  r i 


BENJAMIN   HARRISON. 
462 


BENJAMIN  HARRISON'S  CAREER. 


Statesmen  are  actors  on  the  stage  of  national  achievement. 
It  is  given  to  them  to  practice,  if  they  choose,  certain  arts 
and  stratagems  which,  however  transparent  they  may  be  to 
the  initiated,  keep  them  in  the  public  mind.  Yet  to  this 
level  of  personal  seeking,  not  even  the  most  bitter  opponent 
of  Benjamin  Harrison  can  accuse  him  of  stooping.  He  never 
has  played  to  the  galleries.  He  never  has  courted  notoriety 
for  its  own  sake.  In  all  his  public  career,  his  demeanor  has 
been  as  unassuming,  as  dignified,  and  as  unselfish  as  that 
which  has  characterized  him  in  his  private  life.  It  is  for  this 
reason,  together  with  the  fact  that  his  nomination  in  1888 
was  due  rather  to  his  political  availability  than  to  his  ad- 
mitted statesmanship,  that  in  the  public  estimation  he  is  a 
conservative,  level-headed,  high-minded,  and  safe  Chief 
Executive,  but  lacking  the  qualifications  of  leadership.  Thus 
the  average  citizen  has  come  to  regard  him  as  the  possessor 
of  fair  administrative  ability,  without  especial  brilliancy  of 
mind  or  conduct.  But  the  popular  judgment  of  a  man  is 
more  often  than  not  an  unfounded  one.  The  greatest  man 
not  always  deserves  to  wear  the  title.  The  glittering  crown 
on  the  head  of  the  people's  idol  not  always  is  a  golden  one, 
but  may  be  alloyed  with  the  base  metal  of  mediocrity.  For- 
tunately the  student  of  history  rarely  judges  statesmen  from 
the  point  of  view  of  what  is  called  their  personal  popularity, 
but  rather  from  that  of  personal  worth,  public  service,  and  de- 
votion- to  principle.  So  it  happens  that  the  study  of  the 
career  of  Benjamin  Harrison  reveals  many  unexpected  traits 
of  character.  We  are  struck  with  his  versatility.  Whether 

453 


454  BENJAMIN  HARRISON'S  CAREER. 

we  regard  him  in  the  light  of  his  military  achievements,  of 
his  legal  attainments,  of  his  statesmanship,  or  of  his  oratory, 
we  find  him  well  equipped,  and  in  either  capacity  acquitting 
himself  with  honor.  Versatility  is  rarely  a  characteristic  of 
our  Presidents  nowadays.  As  a  rule  they  are  men  whose 
ability  lies  in  but  one  direction,  who,  if  they  happen  to  be 
lawyers,  know  next  to  nothing  of  the  science  of  war,  and  if 
they  happen  to  be  soldiers,  are  ignorant  of  the  great  formative 
legal  principles  of  the  Constitution.  President  Harrison  has 
shown  himself  to  be  more  than  a  lawyer,  more  than  a  soldier. 
As  head  of  the  most  energetic  administration  since  the  war, 
he  has  commanded  the  approval  often  of  his  opponents.  Long 
ago  they  ceased  to  recognize  in  him  the  fortunate  grandson 
of  a  famous  grandfather,  but  have  learned  to  admire  him  be- 
cause of  his  broad-minded  statesmanship,  and  to  fear  him  be- 
cause of  his  political  sagacity. 

The  Harrison  family  came  to  America  from  England, 
where  it  was  prominent  at  the  time  of  Oliver  Cromwell. 
The  head  of  the  family  was  a  Major-General  Harrison,  one 
of  Cromwell's  trusted  followers  and  fighters.  In  the  zenith 
of  Cromwell's  power  it  became  the  duty  of  this  Harrison  to 
participate  in  the  trial  of  Charles  I.,  and  afterwards  to  sign 
the  death  warrant  of  the  King.  He  subsequently  paid  for 
this  with  his  life,  being  hanged  Oct.  13,  1660.  Pepys  in  his 
diary  says :  "I  went  out  to  Charing  Cross  to  see  Major- 
General  Harrison  hanged,  drawn,  and  quartered,  which  was 
done  there,  he  looking  as  cheerful  as  any  man  could  in  his 
position.  He  was  presently  cut  down,  and  his  head  and 
heart  shown  to  the  people,  at  which  there  was  great  shouting 
of  joy.  It  was  said  that  he  said  he  was  sure  to  come  shortly 
to  the  right  hand  of  Christ  to  judge  them  that  had  judged 
him,  and  that  his  wife  do  expect  his  coming  again."  His 
descendants  emigrated  to  America,  and  the  next  of  the  family 
that  appears  in  history  is  Benjamin  Harrison,  of  Virginia, 
great-grandfather  of  the  subject  of  this  sketch  and  after  whom 


BENJAMIN  HARRISON'S  CAKEKR.  455 

he  was  named.  Benjamin  Harrison  was  a  member  of  the 
Continental  Congress  during  the  years  1774,  1775,  and 
1776.  He  was  a  member  of  the  committee  which  prepared 
the  memorial  to  the  King  and  Parliament  on  the  stamp  tax, 
and  while  he  opposed  Patrick  Henry's  inflammatory  utterances 
on  that  question,  yet  he  was  none  the  less  loyal  to  the  idea 
of  independence.  He  was  the  brother-in-law  of  Peyton 
Randolph,  the  first  President  of  the  American  Congress. 
When  Randolph  died  the  Southern  members  united  upon 
Harrison  to  succeed  him ;  but  the  latter,  to  secure  harmony 
between  the  North  and  the  South,  withdrew  his  claims  in 
favor  of  John  Hancock,  of  Massachusetts.  Harrison  was  one 
of  the  signers  of  the  Declaration  of  Independence  and  Chair- 
man of  the  Committee  which  reported  the  Declaration  to  the 
Continental  Congress,  was  three  times  elected  Governor  of 
Virginia,  and  was  a  member  of  the  convention  that  ratified 
the  Constitution.  He  died  in  1791. 

The  youngest  of  his  three  sons  was  William  Henry 
Harrison,  who  was  graduated  at  Hampden  Sidney  College. 
He  was  engaged  in  the  study  of  medicine  when,  the  Indian 
war  having  broken  out,  he  entered  the  military  service  with 
the  commission  of  ensign  in  the  First  Infantry.  He  made  a 
good  soldier,  and  was  promoted  several  times.  His  career  as 
a  commander  in  the  War  of  1812,  especially  his  exploits  at 
the  Battle  of  Tippecanoe,  gave  him  a  national  reputation. 
He  was  appointed  Secretary  of  the  Northwest  Territory 
under  General  St.  Clair,  but  resigned  and  was  chosen  delegate 
to  Congress.  During  the  session  Congress  created  the  Terri- 
tory of  Indiana,  including  what  are  now  the  States  of  Indiana, 
Illinois,  Michigan,  and  Wisconsin,  and  he  was  chosen  its 
Governor.  His  administration  of  this  office  was  of  lasting 
importance  to  the  development  of  the  West  and  the  North- 
west. General  Harrison,  besides  having  been  elected  to 
Congress,  was  United  States  Senator  from  Ohio  and  Minister 
to  Colombia.  He  was  brought  into  the  field  as  the  Whig 


456  BENJAMIN  HARRISON'S  CAREER. 

candidate  for  President  in  1839.  His  opponent  was  Martin 
Van  Buren,  Democrat,  whom  he  defeated  easily,  receiving 
two  hundred  and  thirty-four  electoral  votes  to  Van  Buren's 
sixty.  He  died  within  one  month  after  his  inauguration  as 
President.  His  son,  John  Scott  Harrison,  the  father  of 
Benjamin  Harrison,  was  born  at  Vincennes,  Ind.,  in  1804. 
He  lived  all  his  life  on  a  farm  in  Southern  Ohio.  He  served 
twice  as  County  Clerk,  and  was  a  member  of  Congress  from 
18ft2  to  1856.  He  died  about  twelve  years  ago. 

Benjamin  Harrison  was  born  at  North  Bend,  Hamilton 
County,  O.,  on  August  20,  1833,  in  the  house  of  his  grand- 
father. The  Harrisons,  from  the  first  Bonj.imin  Harrison, 
had  been  farmers,  and  were  accustomed  to  the  hard  work  of 
farm-life.  One  of  the  songs  of  the  Log-Cabin  and  Hard-Cider 
Campaign  refers  to  General  William  Henry  Harrison's  facility 
with  the  flail.  The  present  candidate  never  had  reason  to 
regret  his  boyhood  experience  on  the  Harrison  farm  at  North 
Bend.  His  first  schooling  was  at  the  log  school-house  near 
his  home,  but  when  fourteen  years  old,  he  was  sent  to  Gary's 
Academy,  near  Cincinnati,  where  he  prepared  for  college.  At 
the  age  of  sixteen,  he  entered  Miami  University,  at  Oxford, 
Ohio,  and  in  June,  1852,  he  graduated  fourth  in  a  class  of  six- 
teen. 

After  leaving  the  university,  young  Harrison  studied  law 
in  Judge  Bellamy  Storer's  office  in  Cincinnati,  where  he  re- 
mained for  two  years.  He  was  already  in  love  with  Miss 
Carrie  L.  Scott,  the  daughter  of  the  Rev.  J.  W.  Scott,  the 
principal  of  the  girls'  seminary  at  Oxford,  Ohio,  and  they 
were  married  when  Harrison  was  nineteen  and  Miss  Scott 
eighteen.  The  couple  went  to  housekeeping  in  a  one-story 
house  at  Indianapolis,  where  the  young  lawyer  threw  out  his 
shingle  and  awaited  clients.  Their  means  were  limited,  and 
Mrs.  Harrison  performed  the  household  duties  without  the  help 
of  a  servant.  Her  husband  sawed  the  wood,  brought  the  water, 
and  anticipated  practice  and  success.  Of  that  early  experience 


BKN.IAMIX  HARBISON'S  CAREER.  457 

he  said  to  a  friend  a  few  years  since,  "  They  were  close  times, 
I  tell  you.  A  five-dollar  bill  was  an  event.  There  was  one 
good  friend  through  it  all  —  Robert  Browning,  the  druggist.  I 
shall  always  recollect  him  with  gratitude.  He  believed  in 
me.  When  things  were  particularly  tight,  I  could  go  into 
his  store  and  borrow  five  dollars  from  his  drawer.  A  ticket 
in  its  place  was  all  that  was  required.  Such  friends  make 
life  worth  living."  Browning  saw  elements  of  success  in 
young  Harrison.  He  expected  that  he  would  succeed  ;  and 
he  did. 

To  General  Wallace,  Harrison's  life-long  friend,  and  for 
some  years  his  law-partner,  we  are  indebted  for  a  pen-portrait 
of  the  young  Indiana  lawyer  at  an  interesting  point  in  his 
career.  General  Wallace  says :  "  He  was  small  in  stature, 
of  slender  physique,  and  what  might  be  called  a  blonde.  His 
eyes  were  gray,  tinged  with  blue,  his  hair  light,  reminding 
one  of  what  in  ancient  days  along  the  Wabash  was  more  truly 
than  poetically  described  as  a  '  tow  head.'  He  was  plainly 
dressed,  and,  in  that  respect,  gave  tokens  of  indifference  to 
the  canons  of  fashion.  He  was  modest  in  manner,  even 
diffident ;  but  he  had  a  pleasant  voice  and  look,  and  did  not 
lack  for  words  to  express  himself.  At  first  one  wondered 
that  a  young  man  apparently  so  lacking  in  assertion  should 
presume  to  entrust  himself  so  far  from  home.  But  it  was 
noticed  that  everything  he  undertook  to  do  he  did  with  re- 
markable sincerity  and  ability,  and  he  was  soon  winning 
suits  at  the  bar.  I  believe  it  was  one  of  his  early  peculiari- 
ties not  to  take  a  case  he  didn't  believe  in." 

Another  biographer  speaks  of  him  thus  :  "  His  face  was 
not  an  imposing  figure  at  that  time.  A  little  slender  fellow, 
with  a  smooth  face,  a  big,  tow-white  head,  no  neck  to  speak 
of,  and  only  the  rather  incredible  fact  that  he  had  a  wife 
saved  him  from  being  mistaken  for  a  school-boy.  He  was 
poor,  too,  and  for  a  long  time  lived  in  three  rooms  in  a  little 
old  house,  still  standing  in  Vermont  Street,  near  Alabama." 


458  BENJAMIN  HARRISON'S  DARKER. 

His  law-practice  the  first  year  at  Indianapolis  did  not  yield 
enough  to  support  him,  and  lie  was  compelled  to  draw  upon 
his  small  capital  of  eight  hundred  dollars,  the  proceeds  of  a 
lot  of  land  in  Cincinnati,  which  was  bequeathed  to  him  by  a 
deceased  aunt,  Mrs.  General  Findlay,  of  that  city.  At  this 
time  he  occupied  a  desk  in  the  office  of  John  H.  Rea,  Clerk 
of  the  United  States  District  Court,  being  too  poor  to  hire 
an  office  of  his  own.  It  was  here  that  an  opportunity  to  dis- 
play his  ability  presented  itself,  when  one  day  the  Prosecuting 
Attorney,  Major  Jonathan  W.  Gordon,  invited  him  to  assist 
in  the  trial,  then  attracting  wide  attention,  of  the  "  Point 
Lookout  "  burglary  case.  He  was  called  upon  to  make  the 
leading  argument  for  the  prosecution,  Governor  Wallace,  one 
of  the  leading  members  of  the  Indiana  bar,  being  pitted 
against  him.  During  the  afternoon,  when  the  witnesses  were 
being  examined,  he  eagerly  noted  every  point,  writing  down 
with  great  fulness"  notes  of  everything  which  he  thought 
could  be  used  with  advantage  in  his  maiden  argument  of  the 
evening.  Evening  came.  The  court-house  was  packed.  The 
court-room  was  lighted  with  tallow  candles.  In  the  feeble 
light  of  the  court-room  Harrison  observed,  greatly  to  his  dis- 
gust, that  the  pencil  that  he  had  employed  to  write  with 
during  the  day  was  so  hard  that  his  notes  were  perfectly 
illegible.  This  greatly  embarrassed  him.  At  the  outset  of 
his  speech  he  made  one  attempt  to  use  some  of  the  fragments 
of  his  papers  ;  but  finding  that  they  interfered  with  the  free 
expression  of  his  thought,  in  his  despair  he  threw  the  notes 
boldly  to  one  side.  With  the  memory  of  his  wife  and  baby 
at  home  he  confronted  the  jury,  grimly  determined  not  to 
make  a  failure.  The  loss  of  his  notes  probably  saved  him. 
His  memory  retained  enough  of  the  details  of  the  case,  with- 
out being  fretted  with  the  superfluous  parts  of  it.  He  made 
such  an  effective  plea  to  the  jury  that,  when  he  had  com- 
pleted, Governor  Wallace  went  up  to  him  and  patted  him 
upon  the  shoulder,  giving  him  warm  words  of  encourage- 


BENJAMIN  HARRISON'S  CAREER.  459 

ment  and  approval.  He  invited  him  to  form  a  business 
partnership  with  his  son,  who  was  then  about  to  establish 
himself  in  the  practice  of  law  in  Indianapolis.  The  two 
young  men  worked  along  together,  making  a  bare  living, 
until  1860,  when  Wallace  became  a  candidate  for  Clerk  of 
the  Circuit  Court  and  Harrison  a  candidate  for  the  Reporter- 
ship  of  the  Supreme  Court,  the  salary  of  which  was  twenty- 
five  hundred  dollars  a  year. 

His  professional  reputation  was  further  enhanced  by  his 
prosecution  of  a  negro  charged  with  attempting  wholesale 
murder  by  putting  poison  in  the  coffee  at  a  hotel.  Harrison 
knew  nothing  of  poisons,  but  calling  on  a  young  doctor 
napaed  Parvin,  who  has  since  become  famous,  spent  a  night 
in  study,  and  the  next  day  went  into  court  and  gained  a 
conviction. 

His  legal  abilities  were  of  so  pronounced  a  character  that 
in  middle  age  he  was  regarded  as  one  of  the  ablest  of  the 
lawyers  of  Indiana.  A  legislative  investigation,  in  which  he 
secured  employment  through  the  Democratic  Governor,  won 
him  new  honors.  The  ability  he  displayed  elicited  the 
highest  praise  of  lawyers  and  laymen.  He  soon  acquired 
the  reputation  of  consummate  skill  in  the  preparation  of 
cases.  He  became  an  expert  examiner  of  witnesses  and  dis- 
cussed legal  questions  in  written  briefs  or  oral  arguments 
with  convincing  strength,  and  became  one  of  the  leaders  of 
his  profession  as  an  advocate. 

"  In  a  case  at  law,"  said  one  of  his  legal  brethren,  "  he 
brings  a  moral  force  to  bear  upon  any  crooked  work  or  con- 
cealment that  is  as  powerful  as  any  skill  in  handling  it.  His 
scorn  and  sarcasm  has  an  'ugly  honesty'  in  its  expression 
that  will  skin  or  scalp  the  victim,  according  to  the  degree  of 
his  culpability.  In  speaking  he  has  a  high,  shrill  voice,  un- 
pleasant to  the  ear  for  the  first  few  moments,  but  a  great 
clearness  of  enunciation  soon  absorbs  the  sense  in  the  subject. 
His  manner  is  very  earnest  and  at  any  proper  point  sweeps 


460  BEX.TAMIX  HARRISON'S  CAREER. 

on  like  a  cavalry  charge.  He  has  an  aggressive  streak  in  his 
nature,  as  his  square,  firm  jaw  and  the  '  clench '  with  which 
he  shuts  his  mouth  indicate.  He  ha:>  abundant  pluck  in  the 
use  of  it,  and  with  an  aroused  conscience  is  no  respecter  of 
persons." 

That  a  man  of  his  attainments  and  fame  should  become  a 
leader  in  politics  was  inevitable.  In  the  first  years  of  his 
life  at  Indianapolis  he  had  gained  a  local  reputation  as  a 
political  speaker.  Being  by  inheritance  a  Whig,  it  was  only 
natural  that  his  sympathies  should  be  with  the  Republican 
party,  when  in  1856  it  was  formed  with  Fremont  as  its  candi- 
date for  the  Presidency.  It  is  related  of  him  that  when  the 
news  came  that  General  Fremont  had  been  nominated,  he 
was  at  work  in  his  office.  A  crowd  of  exultant  men  rushed 
in  and  asked  him  to  make  a  ratification  speech.  He  declined, 
saying  that  he  could  not  speak  without  preparation.  The 
crowd  persisted,  but  he  continued  to  refuse  until  a  number 
of  men  picked  him  up  on  their  shoulders,  carried  him 
outside,  put  him  on  a  dry-goods  box,  and  told  him  to  say 
something  to  the  people  who  were  there  assembled.  Thus, 
entirely  without  preparation,  he  made  a  speech  which  won  the 
wildest  applause  from  his  hearers  and  added  greatly  to  his 
reputation  as  an  orator. 

In  the  Lincoln  campaign  of  1860,  he  took  the  stump  in 
favor  of  the  Republican  candidate.  He  had  himself  been 
nominated  for  the  office  of  Reporter  of  the  Supreme  Court, 
and  he  made  a  spirited  canvass,  a  feature  of  which  was  a 
joint  debate  at  Rockville,  where  he  broke  lances  with 
Thomas  A.  Hendricks,  the  leader  of  the  Indiana  Democracy, 
and  worsted  him  in  an  oratorical  encounter  which  has  been  a 
tradition  among  loyal  Republicans  ever  since.  Hendricks, 
then  running  for  Governor,  and  Daniel  "W.  Voorhees  were 
announced  to  speak  the  same  evening  as  Harrison.  The 
Democrats  challenged  the  young  Republican  orator  to  a  joint 
meeting,  and  taunted  him  with  the  fear  of  defeat.  Harrison 


CAROLINE   SCOTT   HARRISON. 


461 


BENJAMIN  HARRISON'S  CAREER.  463 

accepted  the  challenge  with  this  remark :  "  Hendricks  is  the 
head  of  the  Democratic  ticket  while  I  am  the  tail  of  the 
Republican  ticket.  He  is  an  experienced  public  debater, 
while  I  am  on  my  first  trip.  But  if  we  can't  get  along  with- 
out showing  the  white  feather,  just  tell  them  we  will  consent 
to  a  joint  meeting."  The  audience  seemed  to  pity  Harrison 
when  he  arose  to  speak,  but  their  sympathy  was  wasted,  for 
the  young  orator  immediately  proved  himself  more  than  a 
match  for  the  Democratic  leader.  His  powers  of  sarcasm 
and  epithet,  which  are  a  marked  characteristic  of  his  oratory 
on  occasion,  he  used  to  excellent  advantage  against  Hen- 
dricks. He  had  the  advantage  of  speaking  after  Hendricks, 
and  at  once  assailed  the  record  of  the  Democratic  party, 
among  other  things  charging  that  "  every  Democrat  in  Indiana 
had  but  a  few  years  ago  conceded  the  truth  of  a  proposition 
they  now  deny."  Voorhees  was  on  his  feet  in  an  instant  with 
a  denial.  Harrison  stopped  for  a  moment  and  said  with 
quick -repartee  :  "  I  beg  your  pardon,  fellow-citizens,  I  should 
have  said  every  Democrat  except  Mr.  Voorhees.  -  He  was 
then  a  Whig."  A  roar  of  applause  greeted  this  bright  sally 
of  Harrison,  and  to  him  were  conceded  the  honors  of  the  even- 
ing. So  severe  was  his  figurative  chastisement  of  Hendricks 
that  the  latter  said  afterwards  that  he  never  would  agree  to 
a  similar  political  discussion  and  give  Harrison  the  advantage 
of  an  uninterrupted  closing  argument. 

By  1862,  when  Lincoln  called  for  500,000  troops,  Harri- 
son had  reached  a  point  in  his  career  when  it  seemed  that  he 
would  make  a  name  for  himself  in  civil  life.  He  had  an 
income  from  his  office  of  $2,500  a  year,  a  house  which  he 
had  half  paid  for,  and  two  young  children.  But  Lincoln's 
call  for  troops  in  July  of  that  year  he  construed  in  the  light 
of  a  personal  appeal.  The  Rebellion  was  assuming  dangerous 
proportions.  Indiana  had  not  done  her  share  in  the  way  of 
enlistments  and  Governor  Morton  was  in  despair.  It  hap- 
pened that  Harrison,  with  William  Wallace,  called  on  the 


464  BENJAMIN  HAKKISON'S  CAKEKU. 

Governor  with  reference  to  the  appointment  of  g,  lieutenant 
from  northern  Indiana. 

"  After  getting  through  with  this  business,"  Harrison  him- 
self said,  "  Governor  Morton  invited  me  into  an  inner  room. 
He  there  spoke  of  the  call  for  troops  and  of  no  response 
being  made  thereto.  The  Governor  seemed  quite  dis- 
couraged at  the  apathy  of  the  people,  and,  pointing  over 
towards  the  Gallup  Block,  where  men  were  dressing  stone, 
remarked  that  men  were  interested  in  their  own  business 
more  than  in  the  safety  of  the  nation.  I  said  right 
there :  — 

" '  Governor,  if  I  can  be  of  service  to  my  country  I  am 
ready  to  go.' 

"He  said:  'You  can;  you  can  raise  a  regiment  in  this 
district.'  He  went  on  to  say  :  — 

"  *  You  have  a  good  office,  and  it  would  be  too  much  to  ask 
you  to  give  it  up ;  but  you  get  up  the  regiment  and  we  can 
find  someone  else  to  take  it  to  the  field.' 

"I  said:  'No  ;  if  I  make  a  recruiting  speech  and  ask  any 
man  to  enlist,  I  propose  to  go  with  him  and  stay  as  long  as 
he  does,  if  I  live  so  long.' 

"'Well,'  said  the  Governor,  'you  can  command  the  regi- 
ment.' 

"  I  said :  '  I  don't  know  that  I  shall  want  to.  I  have  no 
military  experience  ;  we  can  see  about  that.' ' 

Harrison  acted  quickly.  He  went  straight  to  a  hat  store 
and  bought  a  military  cap.  Then  he  hired  a  fifer  and  a 
drummer,  whom  he  stationed  in  front  of  his  law  office,  from 
the  windows  of  which  he  soon  threw  out  a  Union  flag.  His 
office  was  thus  turned  into  a  recruiting  station  for  the  United 
States  army.  He  did  these  things  without  consulting  his 
wife.  The  fifer  piped  such  shrill  blasts  of  patriotism,  and 
the  drum  rattled  such  a  stirring  accompaniment  that  the 
town  was  soon  alive  with  excitement.  Harrison's  example 
was  speedily  followed  by  many  others.  The  patriotism  of 


BENJAMIN  HARRISON'S  CAREER.  465 

Indianapolis  was  aroused.  Her  citizens  rallied  to  the  Union 
cause.  Within  a  brief  time  Company  A  of  the  Seventieth 
Indiana  Regiment  was  raised  by  Harrison,  and  in  a  few 
weeks  a  full  regiment  was  organized.  He  was  elected  Colo- 
nel of  this  regiment.  Within  thirty  days  from  the  time  that 
"  Ben  "  Harrison  closed  his  law  books  and  donned  a  military 
cap  he  was  at  the  head  of  a  full  regiment  of  troops  at  Bowl- 
ing Green,  Ky.,  to  assist  in  the  repulse  of  Gen.  Kirby  Smith, 
who  had  been  threatening  southern  Indiana  with  guerilla  raids. 
This  regiment,  which  was  assigned  to  the  first  brigade  of 
the  third  division  of  the  29th  Army  Corps,  under  Colonel 
Harrison  became  one  of  the  best  drilled  and  most  thoroughly 
disciplined  regiments  of  the  army,  although  at  the  time  of  its 
enlistment  its  membership  was  composed  of  the  most  unprom- 
ising raw  material.  The  regiment  served  in  Kentucky  and 
Tennessee  until  January,  1864,  when  it  moved  east  to  join 
Sherman  in  the  campaign  of  Atlanta.  At  Resaca,  on  May  15, 
1864,  he  achieved  his  first  triumph  in  the  field.  Here  he 
led  the  charging  column,  and  captured  the  rebel  lines  and 
guns.  At  Peach-Tree  Creek  he  won  the  approval  of 
Fighting  Joe  Hooker.  While  waiting  with  his  men  in  re- 
serve, Harrison  saw  a  detachment  of  Hood's  forces  coming 
towards  him.  The  crest  of  a  hill  was  between  them.  Har- 
rison saw  instantly  that  it  would  not  do  to  wait  and  receive 
this  attack  at  the  foot  of  the  hill.  Without  an  order  he  as- 
sumed the  responsibility  of  charging  his  reserves  up  the  hill 
to  meet  the  rebels  half  way.  "  Our  colonel  was  right  with 
us,  too,"  says  Moses  McLain,  who  was  wounded  in  that 
charge.  "  He  came  right  up  behind  us  when  we  captured 
the  four  guns  there  —  the  only  guns,  I  believe,  that  were 
taken  in  the  Atlanta  campaign.  We  had  to  withstand  a 
murderous  cross-fire,  and  as  the  gunners  discharged  their 
pieces  we  fell  to  the  ground  and  allowed  the  shot  to  pass 
over  us.  Then  we  rushed  up,  scaled  the  works,  and  took 
possession  of  the  guns." 


466  BENJAMIN  HARRISON'S  TAREEB. 

This  was  done  with  so  much  impetuosity  and  courage  that 
the  rebels  were  sharply  repulsed.  It  was  for  this  that  Gen. 
Joe  Hooker  roared  out  to  Harrison,  after  it  was  over :  "  By 
G — ,  sir,  I  will  have  you  made  brigadier-general  for  this." 

Hooker  was  as  good  as  his  word.  In  a  letter  to  the  Secre- 
tary of  War,  he  commended  Colonel  Harrison's  bravery  and 
his  soldierly  qualities  in  the  following  manner  :  — 

HEADQUARTERS  NORTHERN  DEPARTMENT,  CINNCINATI,  O.,  Oct. 
31,  1864. —  The  Hon.  E.  M.  Stanton,  Secretary  of  War:  I  de- 
sire to  call  the  attention  of  the  department  to  the  claims  of  Col. 
Benjamin  Harrison  of  the  Seventieth  Indiana  Volunteers  for 
promotion  to  the  rank  of  Brigadier-General  Volunteers. 

Colonel  Harrison  first  joined  me  in  command  of  a  brigade  of 
Ward's  division  in  Lookout  Valley  preparatory  to  entering  upon 
what  is  called  the  Campaign  of  Atlanta.  My  attention  was  first 
attracted  to  this  young  officer  by  the  superior  excellence  of  his 
brigade  in  discipline  and  instruction,  the  result  of  his  labor,  skill, 
and  devotion.  With  more  foresight  than  I  have  witnessed  in  any 
officer  of  liis  experience,  he  seemed  to  act  upon  the  principle  that 
success  depended  upon  the  thorough  preparation  in  discipline  and 
esprit  of  his  command  for  conflict  more  than  on  any  influence  that 
could  be  exerted,  in  the  field  itself,  and  when  the  collision  came 
his  command  vindicated  his  wisdom  as  much  as  his  valor.  In  all 
the  achievements  of  the  Twentieth  Corps  in  that  campaign, 
Colonel  Harrison  bore  a  conspicuous  part.  At  Resaca  and  Peach- 
Tree  Creek  the  conduct  of  himself  and  command  was  especially 
distinguished.  Colonel  Harrison  is  an  officer  of  superior  abilities, 
and  of  great  professional  and  personal  worth.  It  gives  me  great 
pleasure  to. commend  him  favorably  to  the  honorable  secretary 
with  the  assurance  that  his  preferment  will  be  a  just  recognition 
of  his  services  and  martial  accomplishments.  Respectfully  your 
obedient  servant, 

JOSEPH  HOOKER,  Major-  General  Commanding. 

During  the  absence  of  General  Harrison  in  the  field,  the 
Democratic  Supreme  Court  declared  the  office  of  Supreme 
Court  Reporter  vacant,  and  another  person  was  elected  to  the 
position.  From  the  time  he  left  Indiana  with  his  regiment, 
until  the  fall  of  1864,  after  the  capture  of  Atlanta,  General 
Harrison  had  taken  no  leave  of  absence,  but  having  been 
nominated  by  the  State  convention  of  that  year  for  the  office 


BENJAMIN  HARRISON'S  CAREER.  467 

from  which  he  had  been  ousted,  he  took  a  thirty-days'  leave 
of  absence,  and  under  orders  from  the  War  Department  re- 
ported to  Governor  Morton  for  duty.  During  this  thirty- 
days'  leave,  he  again  made  a  brilliant  canvass  of  the  State 
and  was  elected  for  another  term.  After  the  campaign  was 
over,  during  the  winter  of  18  64-' 65,  he  was  ordered  to  rejoin 
Sherman  at  Savannah.  With  his  wife  and  two  children, 
accompanied  by  an  orderly,  he  set  out  for  Savannah  by  the 
way  of  New  York.  Upon  the  road  he  was  stricken  down 
with  scarlet-fever  and  was  forced  to  get  off  the  train  in  the 
snows  of  midwinter  at  Narrowsburg,  a  country  station  on  the 
New  York  and  Erie  Railroad.  Fortunately  the  orderly  who 
was  with  him  was  an  experienced  hospital  nurse.  The  doctor 
who  attended  him  had  to  come  seventeen  miles  over  the 
snow.  The  man  who  had  escaped  death  from  every  variety 
of  rebel  bullet  had  a  hard  struggle  in  the  snowbanks  of  frigid 
New  York.  Finally  the  hospital  nurse  himself  was  attacked 
by  the  fever,  and  the  children  also  were  taken  down.  But 
the  pluck  of  Mi's.  Harrison  and  her  untiring  care  enabled 
them  all  to  subdue  the  fever.  Harrison  lost  all  the  hair  off 
his  head  and  several  coats  of  cuticle.  But  he  rallied  rapidly 
when  once  he  began  to  recover,  and  finally  reached  Sherman 
in  time  to  participate  in  the  closing  incidents  of  the  war.  He 
was  with  him  at  the  surrender  of  Johnston,  was  in  Washing- 
ton with  his  regiment  at  the  grand  review,  and  did  not  return 
home  until  the  war  was  over.  He  received  the  brevet  of 
Brigadier-General  of  Volunteers  on  January  23,  1865. 

General  Harrison,  in  1868,  declined  a  re-election  as  Reporter 
of  the  Supreme  Court  in  order  to  resume  the  practice  of  his 
profession.  He  was  associated  in  the  practice  of  law  with 
the  firms  of  Porter,  Harrison  &  Fishback,  and  Harrison, 
Hines  &  Miller— Mr.  Miller  being  the  present  Attorney- 
General  of  the  United  States.  Almost  from  his r  first  appear- 
ance in  the  State  he  was  taken  into  the  councils  of  the  party 
and  the  local  politicians.  He  made  many  political  speeches, 


468  BENJAMIN  HARBISON'S  CAREER. 

assisted  in  the  management  of  the  State  Committee,  and 
gradually  grew  in  political  power  until  in  1876,  Godlove  S. 
Orth  having  declined  the  Republican  nomination  for 
Governor,  Harrison  was  substituted  by  the  State  Committee 
while  absent  from  the  State.  '  He  accepted  the  nomination  as 
a  public  duty,  but  the  then  natural  majority  of  the  Demo- 
cratic party,  strengthened  by  the  candidacy  of  the  most 
popular  Democratic  leader  in  the  State,  the  famous  "  Blue 
Jeans  "  Williams,  could  not  be  overcome.  This  campaign 
greatly  extended  General  Harrison's  acquaintance  and  repu- 
tation among  the  people.  He  made  a  gallant  fight  and  spoke 
many  times.  He  polled  nearly  two  thousand  more  votes  than 
the  general  average  of  his  ticket. 

From  this  time  he  was  the  recognized  leader  of  the  Indiana 
Republicans.  In  1880  he  was  chairman  of  the  Indiana  dele- 
gation to  the  Republican  National  Convention,  where  he 
threw  the  vote  of  Indiana  in  favor  of  James  A.  Gar  field. 
The  year  previous  President  Hayes  appointed  him  a  member 
of  the  Mississippi  River  Commission.  When  in  1880,  largely 
as  a  result  of  his  management  of  the  campaign,  the  Indiana 
legislature  was  Republican,  he  was  pushed  to  the  front  in 
the  canvass  for  United  States  Senator,  to  succeed  Joseph  E. 
McDonald.  Efforts  were  made  to  create  divisions  in  favor 
of  others,  but  the  voice  of  the  party  was  practically  unani- 
mous for  the  man  who  had  fought  the  party  battles  so  many 
years,  and  had  been  a  conspicuous  figure  in  every  campaign 
since  1856.  His  nomination  was  plainly  foreshadowed  be- 
fore the  legislature  convened,  and  before  the  caucus  met  all 
other  names  were  withdrawn.  His  election  gave  the  greatest 
satisfaction  to  Republicans  throughout  the  State. 

During  his  term  of  six  years  General  Harrison,  while  not 
a  frequent  speaker,  established  his  reputation  as-  a  thinking 
and  enlightened  member  and  a  finished  and  ready  debater. 
He  was  a  member  of  the  Foreign  Relations  Committee,  the 
Committee  on  Military  Affairs,  the  Committee  on  Indian 


BENJAMIN  HARBISON'S  CAREER.  469 

Affairs,  and  Chairman  of  the  Committee  on  Territories.  He 
did  not  force  himself  forward  as  a  speaker,  but  when  he  did 
speak  he  commanded  attention.  He  was  a  warm  friend  of 
the  soldier.  One  day  in  July,  1882,  the  Senate  heard  him 
at  his  best.  His  colleague,  Senator  Voorhees,  in  discussing  a 
revenue-reduction  bill,  ridiculed  the  Republicans  for  taking 
the  tax  off  perfumery  and  cosmetics.  Harrison  had  waited 
for  just  this  speech.  When  Voorhees  finished,  Harrison 
stepped  into  the  arena  in  front  of  the  Speaker's  desk  and, 
approaching  the  Democratic  side,  he  went  on  without  notes 
to  belabor  his  colleague  most  vigorously  and  unmercifully 
for  nearly  an  hour.  Voorhees  never  again  sought  occasion 
to  provoke  Senator  Harrison  to  answer. 

Senator  Harrison's  principal  speeches  were  made  upon 
Civil  Service,  the  Blair  Educational  Bill,  the  Mississippi  River 
scheme  of  improvements,  the  Immigration  Bill,  and  against 
the  alien  ownership  of  public  lands.  Upon  Chinese  immi- 
gration he  argued  for  a  faithful  regard  of  treaty  obligations 
in  enforcing  exclusion.  His  service  on  the  Mississippi  River 
Commission  prepared  him  to  discuss  familiarly  all  proposi- 
tions brought  forward  for  the  improvement  of  its  navigation. 
While  he  favored  the  general  purpose  of  the  Civil  Service 
law  then  under  consideration,  and  afterwards  voted  for  it,  he 
contended  for  the  perfect  freedom  of  the  government  employee 
to  contribute  for  political  purposes. 

His  senatorial  term  expired  March  4,  1887,  and  the  legis- 
lature to  choose  his  successor  was  to  be  elected  in  the  fall  of 
1886.  The  history  of  that  campaign  is  still  fairly  fresh  in 
the  public  mind.  It  was  in  a  large  degree  General  Harri- 
son's campaign.  Though  others  were  good  seconds  and  able 
assistants  he  was  foremost  in  the  fight.  The  Republicans 
carried  the  State  and  came  within  a  hair's  breadth  of  carrying 
the  legislature,  though  the  apportionment  had  been  gerry- 
mandered so  as  to  give  the  Democrats  at  least  forty-six 
majority  on  joint  ballot.  Failing  of  re-election,  with  the 


470  BENJAMIN  HARRISON'S  OAREEB. 

expiration  of  his  senatorial  term,  General  Harrison  returned 
to  the  practice  of  his  profession. 

In  1888  he  was  nominated  for  the  Presidency  by  the 
Republican  National  Convention,  on  the  eighth  ballot.  The 
first  ballot  resulted :  Alger,  84  ;  Sherman,  220  ;  Gresham, 
114;  Depew,  90;  Harrison,  79;  Allison,  72;  Third  bal- 
lot: Alger,  122;  Sherman,  214;  Gresham,  123;  Depew,  9; 
Harrison,  88.  Depew  withdrew  after  this  ballot.  New  York 
then  flopped  over  with  50  votes  for  Harrison.  On  the  fifth 
ballot  the  result  was  :  Sherman,  224 ;  Alger,  87  ;  Harrison, 
142;  Allison,  213;  Elaine,  99.  California  made  a  break 
on  the  seventh  ballot.  Allison  withdrew  on  the  eighth  ballot 
and  Iowa  went  over  to  Harrison.  Wisconsin  gave  him  22 
votes  and  the  result  was :  Harrison,  554  ;  Sherman,  118; 
Alger,  100 ;  Gresham,  59  ;  Elaine,  5  ;  McKinley,  5. 

General  Harrison  remained  at  Indianapolis  during  the 
entire  campaign.  Delegation  after  delegation  from  all  parts 
of  the  Union  called  on  him.  To  every  delegation  he  made  a 
speech,  and  these  short  orations  were,  and  have  continued  to 
be,  the  wonder  of  Democrats  and  Republicans  alike.  He 
never  said  anything  that  might  be  used  against  him,  and 
day  after  day  he  outlined,  the  principles  of  his  party  briefly, 
yet  eloquently  and  with  an  understanding  that  marked  him 
as  a  thoroughly  equipped  statesman.  He  was  elected  in  the 
following  November,  -  carrying  every  Northern  State  except 
New  Jersey  and  Connecticut,  and  receiving  223  electoral 
votes  to  168  for  G rover  Cleveland. 

Harrison's  nomination  in  1888  was  by  those  who  did  not 
know  him  regarded  as  the  logical  outcome  of  a  situation  in 
which  the  Republicans  found  themselves  compelled  to  take  a 
favorite  son  of  a  doubtful  State  which  they  expected  him  to 
carry  with  him.  He  was  practically  unknown,  as  statesmen 
should  be  known,  to  the  majority  of  Republican  voters.  The 
cartoonists  represented  him  as  a  man  who  wore  his  grand- 
father's hat,  and  that  grandfather  the  ninth  President  of  the 


SIAJ.  "WILLIAM    MCKINLEY. 


\ 


BENJAMIN  HARRISON'S  CAREER.  473 

United  States.  One  of  the  many  replies  to  the  requests  for 
information  about  Benjamin  Harrison  which  his  devoted  In- 
diana friends  had  to  make  was  this  most  complimentary  one 
'from  ex-Congressman  Benjamin  Butterworth:  — 

"  You  ask  me  what  I  know  about  Ben  Harrison.  I  know- 
all  about  him.  I  do  not  think  there  is  a  flaw  in  him,  and  I 
do  not  speak  as  a  Republican,  but  as  a  citizen  —  as  one  who 
knows  the  moral  and  mental  make-up  of  Ben  Harrison.  His 
speeches  surprise  a  great  many  on  account  of  their  grasp  of 
many  subjects  concerning  which  he  speaks,  and  the  thor- 
oughly practical  views  he  entertains  on  all  subjects  which  are 
of  interest  to  the  American  people.  I  am  not  a  bit  sur- 
prised, for  I  know  the  man.  I  should  have  been  very  greatly 
disappointed  if  he  did  not  develop  the  strong  characteristics 
which  crop  out  in  all  his  speeches.  In  his  manner  of  thought 
and  expression  he  reminds  me  more  of  Lineoln  than  of  any  can- 
didate we  ever  had.  He  doesn't  know  how  to  bo  a  trimmer, 
but  speaks  from  a  thorough  conviction  of  duty  and  an  inspi- 
ration which  springs  from  adherence  to  the  right.  He  is  as 
kind  as  a  mother,  and  as  courageous  as  any  man  I  ever  knew. 
He  would  not  conscientiously  offend  the  humblest  or  meanest 
of  creatures,  and  he  would  not  hesitate  to  tackle  the  most 
powerful,  it  is  said,  if  dvity  required  it.  I  cannot  help  but 
feel  that  in  his  nomination  we  arc  getting  around  once  more 
into  the  same  atmosphere  that  surrounded  Abraham  Lincoln." 

The  doubts  in  the  public  mind  of  Harrison's  ability,  how- 
ever, have  been  dispelled  by  the  masterly  manner  in  which 
he  has  inspired  and  directed  the  policy  of  his  administration. 
Whatever  errors  he  may  have  made,  it  cannot  be  denied  that 
his  administration  has  been  an  eventful  one,  the  most  active, 
in  fact,  since  the  war.  During  it  General  Harrison  has 
maintained  himself  with  a  wise  conservatism  and  a  patriotic 
devotion  to  the  national  welfare  which  have  caused  him  to 
rise  high  in  the  public  estimation.  The  unknown  Hoosier 
lawyer  has  exhibited  a  breadth  of  view  and  a  ready  grasp  in 


474  BENJAMIN  IIAKKISON'S  CAKEEK. 

the  discussion  of  national  questions  which  were  unsuspected 
at  the  time  of  his  nomination  in  188H.  Especially  happy  has 
he  been  in  his  speeches,  in  the  making  of  which  it  is  univer- 
sally admitted  lie  is  easily  the  most  fluent  of  the  Presidents 
since  Lincoln.  His  orator}'  is  characterized  by  a  natural 
grace  and  ease  of  expression,  without  any  suggestion  of 
studied  effort.  Here  are  a  few  of  his  sayings  taken  at  ran- 
dom from  a  volume  of  Ms  speeches  delivered  during  his 
present  term  of  office :  — 

When  hopes  go  out  of  the  heart  and  life  becomes  so  hard  tliat 
it  is  no  longer  sweet,  men  are  not  safe  neighbors  and  they  are 
not  good  citizens. 

If  I  were  to  select  a  watchword  that  I  would  have  every  young 
man  write  above  his  door  and  on  his  heart  it  would  be  that  good 
word,  "  Fidelity ." 

I  pity  the  man  who  wants  a  coat  so  cheap  that  the  man  or 
woman  who  produces  the  cloth  or  shapes  it  into  a  garment  shall 
starve  in  the  process. 

If  no  ill  happens  to  you  tint  I  do  not  wish  ami  all  the  good 
comes  to  you  that  I  do  wish  in  your  behalf,  your  lives  will  be  full 
of  pleasantness  and  peace. 

I  believe  that  our  legislation  should  be  as  broad  as  our  territory, 
should  not  be  for  classes,  but  should  be  always  in  the  interest  of 
all  our  people. 

The  captain  who  gives  to  the  sea  his  cargo  of  goods  that  he 
may  give  safety  and  deliverance  to  his  imperilled  fellow-men,  has 
fame ;  he  who  lands  the  cargo  has  only  wages. 

I  hope  that  nrrro  v  sentiment  that  regards  the  authority  of  the 
United  States  or  its  officers  as  alien  or  strange,  has  once  and  for- 
ever been  extinguished  in  this  land  of  ours. 

President  Harrison  is  not  a  "  sociable  '"  man,  so-called.  In 
fact,  he  carries  himself  with  a  certain  reserve  which  when 
first  encountered  acts  as  a  barrier  to  the  social  relation.  But 
this  wears  off  on  acquaintance  and  his  reticence  gives  way  to 
geniality.  Still,  his  intimacies  are  few  and  far  between.  He 
has  neither  "  cronies  "  nor  vices  to  while  away  the  hours 
with  ;  in  fact,  he  has  been  far  too  busy  a  man  since  March, 
1889,  to  give  himself  much  leisure.  He  loves  hard  work 
and  is  a  diligent  student.  He  keeps  in  close  touch  with  the 


BENJAMIN  HABBISON'S  CABEER. 


47f 


trend  of  politics  in  all  parts  of  the  country  and  the  natural 
aptitude  for  political  organization  which  marked  his  career  in 
Indiana  has  been  frequently  displayed  during  his  term  as 
President,  but  especially  at  the  Minneapolis  Convention, 
where  his  forces  maintained  an  unbroken  line  of  battle  during 
seven  days  of  desperate  fighting,  being  marshalled  under  his 
personal  direction. 

He  is  domestic  in  his  habits  and  thoroughly  devoted  to  his 
handsome,  delicate-featured,  black-eyed  wife,  who  began  with 
him  a  struggle  for  a  place  and  a  home  in  the  then  Far  West 
when  he  was  in  his  twentieth  year. 


WHITELAW  REID'S  CAREER. 


When  Horace  Greeley  dropped  his  editorial  pen  and  took 
the  stump  in  his  own  campaign  for  the  Presidency  in  1872, 
the  management  of  the  New  York  Tribune  fell  to  his  assist- 
ant, Whitelaw  Reid,  then  in  his  39th  year.  Greeley's  politi- 
cal ruin  was  followed  by  a  business  crisTs*  in  his  newspaper. 
Only  a  young  man  like  Reid,  able,  ambitious,  and  self- 
reliant,  could  restore  the  magnificent  property  which  Greeley's 
mistaken  policy  had  landed  on  the  verge  of  bankruptcy. 
Reid  had  been  in  New  York  City  only  three  years,  having 
come  from  Ohio.  Although  a  comparative  stranger  in  the 
metropolis,  he  succeeded  in  interesting  men  of  capital  in  the 
Tribune,  and  was  thereby  enabled  to  place  the  property  on  a 
sound  financial  footing.  At  that  period  the  New  York 
Times  was  the  organ  of  the  Republican  party,  but  the 
Tribune,  under  Reid's  editorship,  rapidly  gained  the  favor  of 
the  Republican  leaders  and  finally  became  the  party  mouth- 
piece. The  paper  since  then  lias  been  an  able  and  powerful 
advocate  of  Republican  doctrine  ;  it  has  been  skilfully  edited, 
has  been  persistent  in  its  devotion  to  its  principles  and  has, 
more  than  any  other  newspaper,  contributed  to  Republican 
success.  President  Hayes  offered  Editor  Reid  the  appoint- 
ment of  Minister  to  Germany,  and  President  Garfield  made 
him  a  similar  offer,  both  of  which  he  refused.  Three  years 
ago  he  accepted  from  President  Harrison  the  post  of  Minister 
to  France.  He  was  extremely  popular  at  the  French  capital 
and  fulfilled  his  duties  in  a  creditable  manner.  He  succeeded 
in  negotiating  for  the  entrance  of  the  American  hog  into 
France,  and  on  his  return  to  this  country  a  short  time  ago, 

476 


WHITJ&LiAW  REID. 


477 


WHITELAW   REin's    CAREER.  479 

after  having  resigned  his  post,  he  brought  with  him  the  draft 
of  a  treaty  of  extradition  with  France.  •  His  nomination  as 
the  Republican  candidate  for  Vice-President  was  accomplished 
at  the  instance  of  the  New  York  delegation,  who  argued 
that  he  would  strengthen  Harrison  in  the  most  important 
doubtful  State.  For  many  years  it  has  been  customary  with 
the  Republican  party  to  nominate  for  the  Vice-Presidency  a 
resident  of  New  York,  except  when  the  candidate  for  Presi- 
dent happened  to  be  from  an  Eastern  State. 

Mr.  Reid  is  of  Scotch  descent.  He  is  Ohio  born,  but  two 
generations  before  his  ancestors  came  over  from  Scotland  into 
the  wilderness  beyond  the  Alleghanies  and  carved  out  places 
for  themselves  in  the  great  West.  Robert  Charlton  Reid 
was  his  father,  and  Marian  Whitelaw  Ronalds  his  mother. 
His  paternal  grandfather  was  a  Covenanter.  He  had  a  large 
area  of  land  on  the  Ohio  River,  but  gave  up  its  possession 
rather  than  retain  it  conditioned  upon  his  operating  a  ferry 
every  day  in  the  week,  including  Sundays.  The  sturdy  old 
Scot  went  up  into  Greene  County,  O.,  founded  the  town  of 
Xenia,  and  it  was  there  that  Whitelaw  was  born  on  Oct.  27, 
1837. 

The  lad's  uncle,  the  Rev.  Hugh  McMillan,  was  principal 
of  the  Xenia  Academy  and  a  trustee  of  Miami  University. 
He  took  pains  to  give  Whitelaw  some  private  tutoring  to  test 
his  mind,  and  was  rewarded  in  finding  that  the  lad  had  good 
grit  and  the  acquisitive  faculty.  He  placed  him  at  the  age 
of  fifteen  years  in  the  sophomore  class  at  Miami,  where,  in 
1856,  the  youth  was  graduated  first  in  his  class.  He  had 
been  well  drilled  in  the  classics  and  never  neglected  this  part 
of  his  training.  He  has  always  been  and  is  to-day  a  littera- 
teur at  one  end  of  the  newspaper  office  and  the  shrewdest  of 
Scotch  financiers  at  the  other.  At  once  on  leaving  his  alma 
mater  Reid  started  in  as  a  bread-winner.  He  took  the  posi- 
tion of  principal  of  a  graded  school  at  South  Charleston,  O., 
and  for  a  year  served  for  a  small  salary. 


480  WHITEI.AW  UEID'S  CAREER. 

He  has  ever  been  noted  for  his  inflexibility  of  mind.  He 
held  strong  convictions  from  his  youth,  and  thus  was  en- 
dowed the  first  qualification  of  successful  editorship,  some- 
thing to  say.  He  bought  the  Xenia  News  and  became  its 
editor.  The  Republican  party  had  just  been  formed.  In  the 
Fremont  campaign  he  had  taken  the  stump  and  became  identi- 
fied with  the  Republican  leaders  of  the  State.  With  the  News 
he  pitched  in  vigorously  against  the  South.  He  said  what  he 
had  to  say  with  a  vigor  and  variety  that  made  his  utterances 
quoted  from  the  start.  He  met  many  public  men  and  never 
lost  a  chance  to  talk  with  them  on  the  issues  of  the  day.  He 
formed  acquaintances  and  made  friends. 

In  1860  he  supported  Lincoln  for  President,  although  he 
was  the  personal  friend  of  Salmon  P.  Chase,  the  News 
being  the  first  Western  newspaper  outside  of  Illinois  to  do 
-so,  and  its  influence  caused  the  election  of  a  Lincoln  dele- 
gate to  the  Republican  Convention  from  the  Xenia  district. 
The  following  winter  he  represented  the  Cincinnati  Times  at 
Columbus,  as  legislative  correspondent.  He  next  connected 
himself  with  the  staff  of  the  Cincinnati  G-azette  and  the 
Cleveland  Herald,  and  afterward  became  city  editor  of 
the  G-azette.  At  the  outbreak  of  the  war  he  was  sent  to  the 
front  as  the  Avar  correspondent  of  the  G-azette,  being  recog- 
nized at  the  time  as  one  of  the  best  newspaper  writers  of  the 
West. 

Reid  was  assigned  to  duty  as  volunteer  aid-de-camp,  with 
the  rank  of  captain.  He  wrote  over  the  signature  of 
"  Agate."  His  letters  from  the  field  were  accurate,  intelli- 
gent, and  graphic ;  consequently  they  were  widely  read  and 
aided  him  to  fame.  He  went  through  the  first  and  second 
Virginia  campaigns,  and  also  the  Tennessee  campaign,  and 
was  present  at  Fort  Donelson,  and  later  at  Pittsburg  Land- 
ing. To  witness  the  last  battle  Reid  left  a  sick-bed  against 
the  doctors'  orders,  saw  the  great  fight  from  beginning  to 
end,  and  then  sent  a  wonderful  piece  of  pen-picturing,  ten 


WH1TELAW    REID'S    CAREER.  481 

columns  long,  descriptive  of  the  battle.  This  letter  wis  ap- 
plauded as  an  example  of  extraordinary  reporting,  and 
*•  Agate  "  received  numerous  complimentary  notices,  besides 
an  increase  in  salary. 

In  1862,  Reid  acquired  an  interest  in  the  Commercial- 
Grazette,  and  lived  in  Washington  as  correspondent.  He  was 
appointed  Librarian  of  the  House  of  Representatives  in  1863, 
and  served  three  years.  In  Washington  he  made  many  ac- 
quaintances, Horace  Greeley  among  them.  Reid's  Xenia 
paper  had  been  modelled  after  the  ITew  York  Tribune  of 
Greeley,  and  he  had  read  everything  the  great  agitator  had 
written.  The  pair  became  fast  friends.  Reid  was  an  indus- 
trious worker,  and  while  a  political  writer  of  vigor,  never 
lost  his  knack  as  a  reporter.  He  went  to  Gettysburg  when 
that  fight  was  on  and  gave  a  fine  description  of  the  battle. 

The  war  over,  Mr.  Reid  accompanied  Mr.  Chase  on  a  tour 
of  the  South,  and  collected  his  letters  in  a  book  published  in 
1806  under  the  title  of  "  After  the  War,  a  Southern  Tour." 
This  had  a  wide  sale,  and  is  a  good  example  of  his  style. 
Later,  he  tried  cotton-planting,  having  received  financial 
support,  but  as  a  cotton  planter  he  was  a  failure.  He  was 
not  long  idle,  and  the  next  two  years  he  gave  to  the  writing 
of  a  book  entitled,  "  Ohio  in  the  War,"  which  was  the  first  of 
the  State  histories  of  the  Civil  War,  and  was  used  as  a  model 
for  many  others.  Reid  then  returned  to  the  Gazette  as 
leader  writer,  but  later  became  editor.  He  left  his  sanctum 
in  order  to  go  to  Washington  to  write  up  the  impeachment 
trial  of  President  Johnson,  which  he  did  with  characteristic 
cleverness.  Greeley  now  invited  him  to  New  York  to  fill  a 
place  on  the  Tribune  staff,  but  Reid  declined.  The  next 
year  he  accepted  a  similar  offer  and  he  has  been  with  the 
paper  ever  since.  Reid  became  Greeley's  confidant ;  by  the 
la\v  of  opposites  they  got  along  admirably,  the  impulsive, 
erratic  genius  of  the  older  man  affording  striking  contrast  to 
the  calm,  tactful,  patient  temperament  of  the  younger.  In 


482  WHITELAW  REID'S  CAKEKR. 

1869,  Reid  succeeded  John  Russell  Young  as  managing 
editor  of  the  Tribune.  Then  came  the  Greeley  campaign  of 
1872,  followed  by  the  death  of  Mr.  Greeley  and  the  ascen- 
sion of  Mr.  Reid  to  the  control  of  the  Tribune.  In  1878,  he 
was  elected  by  the  legislature  of  New  York  to  be  a  regent 
for  life  of  the  university.  Besides  the  works  above  men- 
tioned and.  his  contributions  to  periodical  literature  he  has 
written  "  Schools  of  Journalism,"  "  The  Scholar  in  Politics," 
"  Some  Newspaper  Tendencies  "  and  "  Town  Hall  Sugges- 
tions." He  is  a  member  of  the  Union  League  Club,  of  the 
Ohio  Society,  and  many  other  organizations,  and  was  for 
years  President  of  the  Lotos  Club.  He  is  a  lover  of  horses 
and  frequently  enjoys  a  morning  canter  on  his  favorite  Menlo 
in  Central  Park. 

In  1881  Mr.  Reid  married  Miss  Elizabeth  Mills,  daughter 
of  D.  O.  Mills,  the  California  millionaire,  who  had  made  the 
metropolis  his  home.  They  met  at  "Millbrae,"  the  Califor- 
nia country-seat  of  the  Mills  family.  Two  children  have  been 
born  to  them,  Ogden  Mills  Reid  and  Jeanie  Reid.  In  New 
York  Mr.  Reid  has  his  home  in  the  palace  which  Henry  Villard 
erected  on  Madison  avenue  at  a  cost  of  about  $1,000,000.  It 
is  one  of  the  regal  residences  of  the  metropolis.  In  the  heart 
of  Westchester  County  Mr.  Reid  owns  a  castle  with  a 
domain  of  eight  hundred  acres  about  it.  The  place  is  called 
Ophir .  Farm,  and  is  one  of  the  finest  country  places  in 
America. 

In  Paris  his  now  ample  fortune  enabled  him  to  entertain 
in  a  fashion  befitting  the  representative  of  a  great  nation. 
In  April,  1892,  he  returned  from  his  post  and  laid  down 
public  office  to  renew  his  chosen  duty  as  a  journalist.  The 
honors  paid  him  on  his  return  to  America,  including  the 
dinners  by  the  Chamber  of  Commerce  of  New  York,  the  Lotos 
Club,  the  Ohio  Society,  and  others,  are  still  fresh  in  the 
public  mind.  On  his  departure  from  Paris,  a  notable  fare- 
well dinner  was  given  in  his  honor.  Among  the  tributes  to 


WHITELAW  REID'S  CAREER.  483 

the  distinguished  American  was  this  one  from  M.  de  Blowitz, 
the  correspondent  of  the  London  Times : 

I  cannot  miss  this  opportunity  of  testifying  to  the  great  success 
of  Mr.  Reid's  mission.  He  has  smoothed  down  difficulties  and 
has  gained  esteem  by  which  his  country  has  profited.  He  has 
been  hospitable  and  has  made  all  his  guests  at  home,  seconded  by 
Mrs.  Reid.  His  efforts  have  led,  first,  to  agreeable  relations  be- 
tween the  government  and  himself,  and  next  to  improve  relations 
between  the  two  governments.  Mr.  Reid,  who  was  good  enough 
to  call  journalists  his  confreres,  has  proved  that  the  intelligence  of 
a  journalist  adapts  itself  with  special  flexibility  and  promptitude 
to  all  the  positions  intrusted  to  him.  Knowing  on  his  arrival  but 
a  few  words  of  French  he  speedily  familiarized  himself  with  the 
language  so  as  to  discuss  with  French  statesmen  the  economic 
questions  at  issue. 

As  humorously  remarked  by  one  of  the  speakers  last  night,  he 
has  been  able  in  spite  of  the  fierce  opposition  of  the  breeders  of 
•petit  cochon  national,  to  effect  the  introduction  of  American 
pork,  and  only  this  morning  he  signed  an  extradition  treaty  which 
will  make  America  a  less  agreeable  place  of  sojourn  for  French 
swindlers.  His  mission,  in  short,  has  been  summed  up  thus  by 
one  of  those  who  have  watched  his  work :  "  Mr.  Whitelaw  Reid, 
to  the  great  advantage  of  his  own  country  and  the  great  satisfac- 
tion of  France,  has  combined  the  useful  with  the  ornamental,  in- 
ducing France  to  make  concessions  which  would  have  been 
refused  to  'a  man  less  gracious  and  persuasive.  He  has  added  to 
the  cleverness  of  the  Americana  the  urbanity  of  the  French." 


DEPEW  NOMINATES  HARRISON. 


The  speech  of  Chauncey  M.  Depew,  of  New  York,  in 
seconding  the  nomination  of  President  Harrison,  was  as 
follows  s  — 

Mu.  PRESIDENT  AND  GENTLEMEN  OF  THE  CONVENTION  :  It  is 
the  peculiarity  of  Republican  National  Conventions  that  each  one 
of  them  has  a  distinct  and  interesting  history.  We  are  here  to 
meet  conditions  and  solve  problems  which  make  this  gathering 
not  only  no  exception  to  the  rule,  but  substantially  a  new  depar- 
ture. That  there  should  be  strong  convictions  and  their  earnest 
expression  as  to  preferences  and  policies,  is  character!  stic  of  the 
right  of  individual  judgment  which  is  the  fundamental  principle 
of  Republicanism.  There  have  been  occasions  when  the  result 
was  so  sure  that  the  delegates  could  freely  indulge  in  the  charm- 
ing privilege  of  favoritism  and  of  friendship.  But  the  situation 
which  now  confronts  us  demands  the  exercise  of  dispassionate 
judgment  and  our  best  thought  and  experience.  We  cannot 
venture  on  uncertain  ground  or  encounter  obstacles  placed  in  the 
pathway  of  success  by  ourselves. 

The  Democratic  party  is  now  divided,  but  the  hope  of  the 
possession  of  power  once  more  will  make  it  in  the  final  battle 
more  aggressive,  determined,  and  unscrupulous  than  ever.  It 
starts  with  fifteen  States  secure  without  an  effort,  by  processes 
which  are  a  travesty  upon  popular  government,  and  if  continued 
long  enough  will  paralyze  institutions  founded  upon  popular 
suffrage.  It  has  to  win  four  more  States  in  a  fair  fight,  States 
which,  in  the  vocabulary  of  politics,  are  denominated  doubtful. 
The  Republican  party  must  appeal  to  the  conscience  and  the 
judgment  of  the  individual  voter  in  every  State  in  the  Union. 
This  is  in  accordance  with  the  principles  upon  which  it  was 
founded  and  the  objects  for  which  it  contends.  It  has  accepted 
this  issue  before  and  fought  it  out  with  an  extraordinary  con- 
tinuance of  success. 

The  conditions  of  Republican  victory  from  1860  to  1880  were 
created  by  Abraham  Lincoln  and  Ulysses  S.  Grant.  They  were 

484 


CHAUNCEY  M.   DEFEW. 


485 


DEPEW    NOMINATES    HARRISON.  487 

that  the  saved  republic  should  be  run  by  its  saviors.  They  were  the 
emancipation  of  the  slaves,  the  reconstruction  of  the  St:u.-s, 
the  reception  of  those  who  had  fought  to  destroy  the  republic 
back  into  the  fold  without  penalties  or  punishments,  and  to  an 
equal  share  with  those  who  had  fought  and  saved  the  nation  in 
the  solemn  obligations  and  inestimable  privileges  of  American 
citizenship.  They  were  the  embodiment  into  the  Constitution  of 
the  principles  for  which  2,000,000  of  men  had  fought  and  half  a 
million  had  died.  They  were  the  restoration  of  public  credit, 
the  resumption  of  specie  payments,  and  the  prosperous  condition 
of  solvent  business. 

For  twenty-five  years  there  were  names  with  which  to  conjure, 
and  events  fresh  in  the  public  mind  which  were  eloquent  with 
popular  enthusiasm.  It  needed  little  else  than  a  recital  of  the 
glorious  story  of  its  heroes  and  a  statement  of  the  achievements 
of  the  Republican  party  to  retain  the  confidence  of  the  people. 
But  from  the  desire  for  change  which  is  characteristic  of  free 
governments,  there  came  a  reversal,  there  came  a  check  to  the 
progress  of  the  Republican  party  and  four  years  of  Democratic 
administration.  These  four  years  largely  relegated  to  the  realms 
of  history  past  issues,  and  brought  us  face  to  face  with  what 
Democracy,  its  .professions  and  its  practices  mean  to-day.  The 
great  names  which  adorned  the  roll  of  Republican  statesmen  and 
soldiers  are  still  potent  and  popular.  The  great  measures  of  the 
Republican  party  are  still  the  best  of  the  history  of  the  century. 
The  unequalled  and  unexampled  story  of  Republicanism  in  its 
promises  and  in  its  achievements  stands  unique  in  the  record  of 
the  parties  in  governments  which  are  free. 

But  we  live  in  practical  times,  facing  practical  issues  which  af- 
fect the  business,  the  wages,  the  labor,  and  the  prosperity  of 
to-day.  The  campaign  will  be  won  or  lost  not  upon  the  bad 
record  of  James  Polk,  or  of  Franklin  Pierce,  or  of  James  Bu- 
chanan ;  not  upon  the  good  record  of  Lincoln,  or  of  Grant,  or  of 
Arthur,  or  of  Hayes,  or  of  Garfield.  It  will  be  won  or  lost  upon 
the  policy,  foreign  and  domestic,  the  industrial  measures  and  the 
administrative  acts  of  the  administration  of  Benjamin  Harrison. 
Whoever  receives  the  nomination  of  this  convention  will  run 
upon  the  judgment  of  the  people  as  to  whether  they  have  been 
more  prosperous  and  happy,  whether  the  country  has  been  in  a 
better  condition  at  home  and  stood  more  honorably  abroad  under 
these  last  four  years  of  Harrison  and  Republican  administration 
than  during  the  preceding  four  years  of  Cleveland  and  Demo- 
cratic government. 

Not  since  Thomas  Jefferson  has  any  administration  been  called 
upon  to  face  and  solve  so  many  or  such  difficult  problems  as 


488  DEPEW    iNOMINATKS    IIAKIUSOX. 

those  which  have  been  exigent  in  our  conditions.  No  adminis- 
tration since  the  organization  of  the  government  has  met  difficul- 
ties better  or  more  to  the  satisfaction  of  the  American  people. 
Chili  has  been  taught  that,  no  matter  how  small  the  antagonist, 
no  community  can  with  safety  insult  the  flag  or  muni  or  American 
sailors.  Germany  and  England  have  learned  in  Samoa  that  the 
United  States  has  become  one  of  the  powers  of  the  world,  and  no 
matter  how  mighty  the  adversary,  at  every  sacrifice  American 
honor  will  be  maintained.  The  Behring  Sea  question,  which  was 
the  insurmountable  obstacle  in  the  diplomacy  of  Cleveland  and 
of  Bayard,  has  been  settled  upon  a  basis  which  sustains  the 
American  position  until  arbitration  shall  have  determined  our 
right. 

The  dollar  of  the  country  has  been  placed  and  kept  in  the 
standard  of  commercial  nations,  and  a  coin  has  been  agreed  upon 
with  foreign  governments,  which,  by  making  bimetallism  the 
policy  of  all  nations,  may  successfully  solve  all  our  financial  prob- 
lems. The  tariff,  tinkered  with  and  trifled  with  to  the  se :i.»us 
disturbance  of  trade  and  disaster  to  business  since  the  days  of 
Washington,  has  been  courageously  embodied  into  a  code  —  a 
code  which  has  preserved  the  principle  of  the  protection  of 
American  industries.  To  it  has  been  added  a  beneficent  policy, 
supplemented  by  beneficent  t "oatiea  and  wise  diplomacy,  which 
has  opened  to  our  farmers  and  manufacturers  the  markets  of 
other  countries.  The  navy  has  been  builded  upon  lines  which 
will  protect  American  citizens,  and  American  interests,  and  the 
American  flag  all  over  the  world.  The  public  debt  has  been  re- 
duced. The  maturing  bonds  have  been  paid  off.  The  public 
credit  has  been  maintained.  The  burdens  of  taxation  have  been 
lightened.  Two  hundred  millions  of  currency  have  been  added 
to  the  people's  money  without  disturbance  of  the  exchanges. 

Unexampled  prosperity  has  crowned  wise  laws  and  their  wise 
administration.  The  main  question  which  divides  us  is,  To  whom 
does  the  credit  of  all  this  belong  ?  Orators  may  stand  upon  this 
platform  more  able  and  more  eloquent  than  I,  who  will  paint  in 
more  brilliant  colors,  but  they  cannot  put  in  more  earnest 
thought  the  affection  and  admiration  of  Republicans  for  our  dis- 
tinguished Secretary  of  State.  I  yield  to  no  Republican,  no 
matter  from  which  State  he  hails,  in  admiration  and  respect  for 
John  Sherman,  for  Governor  McKinley,  for  Thomas  B.  Reed,  for 
Iowa's  great  son,  for  the  favorites  of  Illinois,  Wisconsin,  and 
Michigan ;  but  when  I  am  told  that  the  credit  for  the  brilliant 
diplomacy  of  this  administration  belongs  exclusively  to  the  Sec- 
retary of  State  ;  for  the  administration  of  its  finances  to  the  Sec- 
retary of  the  Treasury ;  for  the  construction  of  its  ships  to  the 


DEPEW    XOMIXATES    HARRISON".  489 

Secretary  of  the  Navy;  for  the  introduction  of  American  pork  in 
Europe  to  the  Secretary  of  Agriculture ;  for  the  settlement,  so  far 
as  it  is  settled,  of  the  currency  question  to  Senator  John  Sherman; 
for  the  formulation  of  the  tariff  laws  to  Governor  McKinhy ;  for 
the  removal  of  the  restrictions  placed  by  foreign  nations  upon  the 
introduction  of  American  pork  to  our  Ministers  at  Paris  and 
Berlin,  I  am.  tempted  to  seriously  inquire  who,  during  the  last 
four  years,  has  been  President  of  the  United  States,  anyhow? 

Ca3sar,  when  he  wrote  those  commentaries  which  were  the 
history  of  the  conquests  of  Europe  under  his  leadership,  modestly 
took  the  position  of  ./Eneas  when  he  said  : "  They  are  the  narra- 
tive of  events,  the  whole  of  which  I  saw,  and  the  part  of  which  I 
was." 

General  Thomas,  as  the  rock  of  Chickamauga,  occupies  a  place 
in  our  history  with  Leonidas  among  the  Greeks,  except  that  he 
succeeded  where  Leonidas  failed.  The  fight  of  Joe  Hooker 
above  the  clouds  -was  the  poetry  of  battle.  The  resistless  rush  of 
Sheridan  and  his  steed  down  the  valley  of  Shenandoah  is  the  epic 
of  our  Civil  War.  The  march  of  Sherman  from  Atlanta  to  the 
sea  is  the  supreme  triumph  of  gallantry  and  strategy.  It  detracts 
nothing  from  the  splendor  of  the  fame  or  the  merits  of  t'.ie  deeds 
of  his  lieutenants,  to  say  that,  having  selected  them  with  mar- 
vellous sagacity  and  discretion,  Grant  still  remained  the  supreme 
commander  of  the  national  army.  All  the  proposed  acts  of  any 
administration,  before  they  are  formulated  are  passed  upon  in 
Cabinet  council,  and  the  measures  and  suggestions  of  the 
ablest  secretaries  would  have  failed  with  a  lesser  President.  But 
for  the  great  good  of  the  country  and  the  benefit  of  the  Repub- 
lican party  they  have  succeeded  because  of  the  suggestive  mind, 
the  indomitable  courage,  the  intelligent  appreciation  of  situations, 
and  the  grand  magnanimity  of  Benjamin  Harrison. 

It  is  an  undisputed  fact  that  during  the  few  months  when  both 
the  Secretary  of  State  and  the  Secretary  of  the  Treasury  were 
ill,  the  President  personally  assumed  the  duties  of  the  State  and 
the  Treasury  Departments,  and  both  with  equal  success.  The 
Secretary  of  State  in  accepting  his  portfolio  under  President 
Garfield,  wrote  :  "  Your  administration  must  be  made  brilliantly 
successful  and  strong  in  the  confidence  and  pride  of  the  people, 
not  at  all  diverting  its  energies  for  re-election,  and  yetcompelling 
that  result  by  the  logic  of  events  and  by  the  imperious  necess 
of  the  situation." 

Garfield  fell  before  the  bullet  of  the  assassin  and  Mr.  1 
retired   to  private  life.     General   Harrison  invited  him  to  take 
up  that    unfinished    diplomatic    career   where    its  threads    had 
been     so     tragu-allv    broken.     He    entered    the    Cabinet.     He 


490  DEPEW    NOMINATES    HARRISON. 

resumed  his  work,  and  has  won  a  higher  place  in  our  history. 
The  prophecy  he  made  for  Garfield  has  been  superbly  fulfilled  by 
President  Harrison.  In  the  language  of  Mr.  Blaine, "  the 
President  has  compelled  a  re-election  by  the  logic  of  events  and 
the  imperious  necessities  of  the  situation." 

The  man  who  is  nominated  here  to-day  to  win  must  carry  a  cer- 
tain well-known  number  of  the  doubtful  States.  Patrick  Henry 
in  the  convention  which  started  rolling  the  ball  of  the  indepen- 
dence of  the  colonies  from  Great  Britain  said  :  "  I  have  but  one 
lamp  by  which  my  feet  are  guided,  and  that  is  the  lamp  of  expe- 
rience. I  know  of  no  way  of  judging  of  the  future  but  by  the 
past." 

New  York  was  carried  in  1880  by  General  Garfield,  and  in 
every  important  election  since  that  time  we  have  done  our  best. 
We  have  put  forward  our  ablest,  our  most  popular,  our  most 
briliiaht  leaders  for  Governor  and  State  officers,  to  suffer  constant 
defeat.  The  only  light  which  illumines  with  the  suns  of  hope 
the  dark  record  of  those  twelve  years,  is  the  fact  that  in  1888  the 
State  of  New  York  was  triumphantly  carried  by  President 
Harrison.  He  carried  it  then  as  a  gallant  soldier,  a  wise  senator, 
and  a  statesman  who  inspired  confidence  by  his  public  utterances 
in  daily  speech  from  the  commencement  of  the  canvass  to  its 
close.  He  still  has  all  these  claims,  and  in  addition  an  adminis- 
tration beyond  criticism  and  rich  with  the  elements  of  popularity 
with  which  to  carry  New  York  again. 

Ancestry  helps  in  the  Old  World  and  handicaps  in  the  New. 
There  is  but  one  distinguished  example  of  a  son  first  overcoming 
the  limitations  imposed  by  the  pre-eminent  fame  of  his  father, 
and  then  rising  above  it,  and  that  was  when  the  younger  Pitt  be- 
came greater  than  Chatham.  With  an  ancestor  a  signer  of  the 
Declaration  of  Independence,  and  another  who  saved  the  North- 
west from  savagery  and  gave  it  to  civilization  and  empire,  and 
who  also  was  President  of  the  United  States,  a  poor  and  unknown 
lawyer  of  Indiana  has  risen  by  his  unaided  efforts  to  such  dis- 
tinction as  lawyer,  orator,  soldier,  statesman,  and  President,  that 
he  reflects  more  credit  on  his  ancestors  than  they  have  devolved 
upon  him,  and  presents  in  American  history  the  parallel  of  the 
younger  Pitt.  By  the  grand  record  of  a  wise  and  popular  ad- 
ministration, by  the  strength  gained  in  frequent  contact  with  the 
people  in  wonderfully  versatile  and  felicitous  speech,  by  the 
claims  of  a  pure  life  in  public,  and  in  the  simplicity  of  a  typical 
American  home,  I  nominate  Benjamin  Harrison. 


THE  REPUBLICAN  PLATFORM. 


The  representatives  of  the  Republicans  of  the  United 
States,  assembled  in  general  convention  on  the  shores  of  the 
Mississippi  River,  the  everlasting  bond  of  an  indestructible 
republic,  whose  most  glorious  chapter  of  history  is  the  record 
of  the  Republican  party,  congratulate  their  countrymen  on 
the  majestic  march  of  the  nation  under  the  banners  inscribed 
with  the  principles  of  our  platform  of  1888,  vindicated  by 
victory  at  the  polls  and  prosperity  in  our  fields,  workshops, 
and  mines,  and  make  the  following  declaration  of  princi- 
ples :  — 

We  reaffirm  the  American  doctrine  of  protection.  We 
call  attention  to  its  growth  abroad.  We  maintain  that  the 
prosperous  condition  of  our  country  is  largely  due  to  the 
wise  revenue  legislation  of  the  Republican  Congress. 

We  believe  that  all  articles  which  cannot  be  produced  in 
the  United  States,  except  luxuries,  should  be  admitted  free 
of  duty,  and  that  on  all  imports  coming  into  competition 
with  the  products  of  American  labor  there  should  be  levied 
duties  equal  to  the  difference  between  wages  abroad  and  at 
home. 

We  assert  that  the  prices  of  manufactured  articles  of 
general  consumption  have  been  reduced  under  the  operations 
of  the  tariff  act  of  1890.  • 

We  denounce  the  efforts  of  the  Democratic  majority  of  the 
House  of  Representatives  to  destroy  our  tariff  laws  piece- 
meal, as  is  manifested  by  their  attacks  upon  wool,  lead,  and 
lead  ores,  the  chief  products  of  a  number  of  States,  and  we 
ask  the  people  for  their  judgment  thereon. 

491 


492  THE    KKPl'HMCAX    PI.ATFOJIM. 

We  point  to  the  success  of  the  Republican  policy  of 
reciprocity,  under  which  our  export  trade:  has  vastly 
increased,  and  new  and  enlarged  markets  have  been  opened 
for  the  products  of  our  farms  and  workshops. 

We  remind  the  people  of  the  bitter  opposition  of  the 
Democratic  party  to  this  practical  business  measure,  and 
claim  that,  executed  by  a  Republican  administration,  our 
present  laws  will  eventually  give  us  control  of  the  trade  of 
the  world. 

The  American  people,  from  tradition  and  interest,  favor 
bi-metallism,  and  the  Republican  parly  demands  the  use  of 
both  gold  and  silver  as  standard  money,  with  such  restrictions 
and  under  such  provisions,  to  be  determined  by  legislation, 
as  will  secure  the  maintenance  of  the  parity  of  values  of  the 
two  metals,  so  that  the  purchasing  and  debt-paying  power  of 
the  dollar,  whether  of  silver,  gold,  or  paper,  shall  be  at  all 
times  equal.  The  interests  of  the  producers  of  the  country, 
its  farmers  and  its  workingmen,  demand  that  every  dollar, 
paper  or  coin,  issued  by  the  government,  shall  b3  as  good  as 
any  other. 

We  commend  the  wise  and  patriotic  step.>  already  taken 
by  our  government  to  secure  an  international  conference,  to 
adopt  such  measure ;  as  will  insure  a  parity  of  value  between 
gold  and  silver  for  use  as  money  throughout  the  world. 

We  demand  that  every  citizen  of  the  United  States  shall 
be  allowed  to  ca.it  one  free  and  unrestricted  ballot  in  all 
public  elections,  and  that  such  ballot  shall  be  counted  and 
returned  as  cast;  that  such  laws  shall  he  enacted  and  en- 
forced as  will  secure  to  every  citizen,  be  he  rich  or  poor, 
native  or  foreign  born,  white  or  black,  this  sovereign  right 
guaranteed  by  the  Constitution. 

The  free  and  honest  popular  ballot,  the  just  and  equal 
representation  of  all  the  people,  as  Avell  as  their  just  and 
equal  protection  under  the  laws,  are  tho  foundation  of  our 
Republican  institutions,  and  the  party  will  never  relax  its 


THE    REPUBLICAN    PLATFORM.  493 

efforts  until  the  integrity  of  the  ballot  and  the  purity  of 
elections  shall  be  fully  guaranteed  and  protected  in  every 
State. 

We  denounce  the  continued  inhuman  outrages  perpetrated 
on  American  citizens  for  political  reasons  in  certain  Southern 
States  in  the  Union. 

We  favor  the  extension  of  our  foreign  commerce,  the 
restoration  of  our  mercantile  marine  by  home-built  ships,  and 
the  creation  of.  a  navy  for  the  protection  of  our  national 
interests  and  the  honor  of  our  flag;  the  maintenance  of  the 
most  friendly  relations  with  all  foreign  powers  ;  entangling 
alliances  with  none,  and  the  protection  of  the  rights  of  our 
fishermen. 

We  reaffirm  our  approval  of  the  Monroe  doctrine,  and 
believe  in  the  achievement  of  the  manifest  destiny  of  the 
Republic  in  its  broadest  sense. 

We  favor  the  enactment  of  more  stringent  laws  and  regu- 
lations for  the  restriction  of  criminal,  pauper,  and  contract 
immigration. 

We  favor  efficient  legislation  by  Congress  to  protect  the 
life  and  limbs  of  employees  of  transportation  companies  en- 
gaged in  carrying  on  interstate  commerce,  and  recommend 
legislation  by  the  respective' States  that  will  protect  employees 
engaged  in  State  commerce,  in  mining,  and  manufacturing. 

The  Republican  party  has  always  been  the  champion  of 
the  oppressed,  and  recognizes  the  dignity  of  manhood,  irre- 
spective of  faith,  color,  or  nationality ;  it  sympathizes  with 
the  cause  of  Home  Rule  in  Ireland,  and  protests  against  the 
persecution  of  the  Jews  in  Russia. 

The  ultimate  reliance  of  free  popular  government  is  the 
intelligence  of  the  people  and  the  .maintenance  of  freedom 
among  men.  We,  therefore,  declare  anew  our  devotion  to 
liberty  of  thought  and  conscience,  of  speech  and  press,  and 
approve  all  agencies  and  instrumentalities  which  contribute  to 
the  education  of  the  children  of  the  laud ;  but,  while  insisting 


494  THE    REPUBLICAN    PLATFORM. 

upon  the  fullest  measure  of  religious  liberty,  we  are  opposed  to 
any  union  of  Church  and  State. 

We  reaffirm  our  opposition,  declared  in  the  Republican 
platform  of  1888,  to  all  combinations  of  capital,  organized 
in  trusts  or  otherwise,  to  control  arbitrarily  the  condition  of 
trade  among  our  citizens.  We  heartily  endorse  the  action 
already  taken  upon  this  subject,  and  ask  for  such  further 
legislation  as  may  be  required  to  remedy  any  defects  in  ex- 
isting laws,  and  to  render  their  enforcement  more  complete 
and  effective. 

We  approve  the  policy  of  extending  to  towns,  villages,  and 
rural  communities  the  advantages  of  the  free  delivery  service 
now  enjoyed  by  the  larger  cities  of  the  country,  and  reaffirm 
the  declaration  contained  in  the  Republican  platform  of  1888, 
pledging  the  reduction  of  letter  postage  to  one  cent  at  the 
earliest  possible  moment  consistent  with  the  maintenance  of 
the  post-office  department  and  the  highest  class  of  postal 
service. 

We  commend  the  spirit  and  evidence  of  reform  in  the 
civil  service,  and  the  wise  and  consistent  enforcement  by  the 
Republican  party  of  the  laws  regulating  the  same. 

The  construction  of  the  Nicaragua  Canal  is  of  the  highest 
importance  to  the  American  people,  both  as  a  measure  of 
national  defence  and  to  build  up  and  maintain  American  com- 
merce, and  it  should  be  controlled  by  the  United  States 
Government. 

We  favor  the  admission  of  the  remaining  Territories  at  the 
earliest  practicable  date,  having  due  regard  to  the  interests 
of  the  people  of  the  Territories  and  of  the  United  States.  All 
the  Federal  officers  appointed  for  the  Territories  should  be 
selected  from  bona  fide  residents  thereof,  and  the  right  of 
self-government  should  be  accorded  as  far  as  practicable. 

We  favor  cession,  subject  to  the  homestead  laws,  of  the 
arid  public  lands  to  the  States  and  Territories  in  which  they 
lie,  under  such  Congressional  restrictions  as  to  disposition, 


THE    REPUBLICAN    PLATFORM.  495 

reclamation,  and  occupancy  by  settlers,  as  will  secure  the 
maximum  benefits  to  the  people. 

The  World's  Columbian  Exposition  is  a  great  national 
undertaking,  and  Congress  should  promptly  enact  such 
reasonable  legislation  in  aid  thereof  as  will  insure  a  discharge 
of  the  expense  and  obligations  incident  thereto,  and  the 
attainment  of  results  commensurate  with  the  dignity  and 
progress  of  the  nation. 

In  temperance  we  sympathize  with  all  wise  and  legitimate 
efforts  to  lessen  and  prevent  the  evils  of  intemperance  and 
promote  morality. 

Ever  mindful  of  the  services  and  sacrifices  of  men  who 
saved  the  life  of  the  Union,  we  pledge  anew  to  the  veteran 
soldiers  of  the  republic  a  watchful  care  and  recognition  of 
their  just  claims  upon  a  grateful  people. 

We  commend  the  able,  patriotic,  and  thoroughly  American 
administration  of  President  Harrison.  Under  it  the  country 
has  enjoyed  remarkable  prosperity,  and  the  dignity  and  honor 
of  the  nation,  at  home  and  abroad,  have  been  faithfully  main- 
tained, and  we  offer  the  record  of  pledges  kept  as  a  guarantee 
of  faithful  performance  in  the  future. 


THE  VOTE  BY  STATES. 


President  Harrison  was  nominated  on  the  first  ballot.     The 
vote  by  States  was  as  follows :  — 

Whole  number  of  votes  cast 904  1-3 

Necessary  to  a  choice       , 453 

Benjamin  Harrison  received 535  1-6 

James  G.  Blaine  received 182  l-(i 

William  McKinley 182 

Kobert  T.  Lincoln 1 

Thomas  13.  Reed 4 

The  f :  dlowing  is  the  official  vote  by  States  : 

STATES.  HAKKISON.    BLAINE.    MCKIM.I.V 

Alabama l.~>  .  .                 7 

Arkansas 15  .  .                 1 

California 8  9                1 

Colorado 8 

Connecticut 4  .  .                 8 

Delaware      .     .     .     .     , 4  1                1 

Florida 8 

Georgia 26 

Illinois 34  14 

Idaho 6 

Indiana 30 

Iowa 20  5                1 

Kansas 11  .  .                9 

Kentucky 22  1 

Louisiana 8 

Maine •  •  12 

Maryland 14  .  .                 2 

Massachusetts 18  1               11 

Michigan 7  19 

Minnesota 8  9                 1 

Missouri 28  4                2 

Mississippi 13  1-2        41-2 

Montana 5  1 

Nebraska 15  .  .                 1 

Nevada •  •  6 

New  Hampshire 

New  Jersey 18 

New  York 27  35               10 

North  Carolina 17  2-3         22-3          1 

North  Dakota  .     .    ' 2  4 

496 


THE    VOTE    KY    STATES.  497 

STATES.  HARRISON.    ELAINE.    MCKINLEY. 

Ohio 1               .  ;               45 

Oregon 1                                 7 

Pennsylvania 19               3             42 

Rhode  Island 5                i               i 

South  Carolina 13               3 

South  Dakota 8 

Tennessee 17               4               3 

Texas 22               6 

Vermont 8 

Virginia 9              13               2 

Washington 1                6                1 

West  Virginia 12 

Wisconsin 19               2               3 

Wyoming 4                2 

Arizona 1                1 

District  of  Columbia 2 

New  Mexico 6 

Oklahoma 2 

Utah 2 

Alaska 2 

Indian  Territory 1                1 

Total 535  1-6     182  1-6      182 

Ex-Speaker  Reed  received  4  votes,  1  from  New  Hampshire, 
1  from  Rhode  Island,  and  2  from  Texas,  and  Robert  T.  Lin- 
coln 1  vote  from  New  Hampshire.  There  were  2J  votes 
absent. 


BIOGRAPHICAL  STORY 


OP  THE 


Career,   with  Anecdotes,   Reminiscences,  and 
the  Family  Life  of 


The  Democratic  Presidential  Nominee 


AND 


ADLAI  E.  STEVENSON 


The  Democratic  Vice-Presidential  Nominee. 


GBOVK1!    CLKVKLAND. 
500 


CAREER  OF  GROVER  CLEVELAND. 


The  political  rise  of  Grover  Cleveland  has  no  parallel  in 
history.  Mayor  of  an  inland  city  on  January  1,  1882 ;  Gov- 
ernor of  the  greatest  State  in  the  Union  on  January  1, 1883  ; 
President  of  the  United  States  on  March  4,  1885,  he  reached 
the  highest  position  of  national  eminence,  and  displayed 
well-developed  qualities  of  leadership  in  a  shorter  period 
of  time  than  most  public  men  occupy  in  finding  an 
entrance  to  the  arena  of  political  action.  Such  a  career 
would  have  been  impossible  in  any  other  country  of  the 
earth.  In  it  we  find  epitomized  the  possibilities  for  the  indi- 
vidual in  a  government  by  the  people.  It  would  not  far 
overshoot  the  mark  if  it  were  said  that  any  man  who  has 
been  elected  to  preside  as  Mayor  over  any  American  city  of 
more  than  200,000  inhabitants,  and  who  has  performed  his 
duties  wisely  and  faithfully,  is  a  good  enough  public  adminis- 
trator to  make  a  Governor  of  a  State,  and  that  any  man  who 
has  made  a  fitting  Governor  of  a  large  and  important  State 
is  generally  pretty  good  Presidential  timber.  Cleveland  as 
President  conducted  his  office  in  accordance  with  the  same 
principles  which  were  the  inspiring  motives  of  his  adminis- 
tration as  Governor,  and  as  Governor  he  was  simply  perform- 
ing the  duties  of  Mayor  for  a  larger  community.  In  neither 
office  was  he  what  is  commonly  known  as  brilliant.  He  was 
earnest,  painstaking,  faithful,  and  at  the  same  time  cour- 
ageous ;  bound  to  do  what  he  felt  to  be  his  duty,  and  always 
susceptible  to  what  he  believed  was  the  public  interest.  The 
high  estimation  with  which  his  public  services  were  regarded 
by  his  party  was  attested  by  the  handsome  compliment  it 

Ml 


502  CAREER  OF  GROVER  CLEVELAND. 

paid  him  in  renom mating  him  for  the  Presidential  office,  not- 
withstanding his  defeat  of  1888. 

The  original  ancestor  of  the  Cleveland  .family,  in  this 
country,  was  Moses  Cleveland,  who  in  1635  emigrated  from 
Ipswich,  England,  to  Massachusetts,  and  settled  near  Woburn 
where  he  died  in  1701.  His  grandson,  Aaron  Cleveland, 
was  graduated  at  Harvard  College,  and  later  was  ordained 
as  a  minister  of  the  Episcopal  Church.  One  of  his  charges 
was  in  Philadelphia,  where  he  met  and  was  on  terms  of 
intimacy  with  Benjamin  Franklin.  He  died  in  Franklin's 
house  in  1757.  Another  Cleveland,  Timothy,  a  member  of 
the  branch  of  the  family  which  settled  in  Connecticut,  fought 
with  the  patriots  at  Bunker  Hill,  and  was  a  lieutenant  in  the 
Continental  Army  during  the  War  of  the  Revolution.  Of 
the  Rev.  Aaron  Cleveland's  sons,  the  second,  named  after 
the  father,  settled  at  Norwich,  Connecticut,  and  rose  to 
political  prominence  in  the  State,  being  a  member  of  the 
legislature,  and  an  ardent  advocate  of  the  abolition  of  slavery. 
In  middle  life  he  entered  the  ministry,  being  identified 
with  a  Congregational  church  in  Vermont,  and  after  that  in 
New  Haven,  Conn.,  where  he  died  in  1815.  The  second 
Aaron  Cleveland  had  thirteen  children,  the  second  of  whom, 
William,  set  up  as  a  silversmith  and  watchmaker  in  Norwich, 
Conn.  The  vicissitudes  of  business  carried  him  to  Worthing- 
ton,  Mass.,  thence  to  Salem,  and  finally  back  to  Norwich, 
Conn.,  where  he  was  prominent  in  the  Congregational  church. 
William's  son,  Richard  Falley  Cleveland,  was  the  father  of 
Grover  Cleveland.  Richard  was  born  in  1805,  at  Norwich, 
and  was  educated  at  Yale  College.  His  father  desired  the 
son  to  enter  the  ministry,  but  the  years  immediately  suc- 
ceeding his  graduation,  he  spent  as  tutor  in  a  private  school 
in  Baltimore,  Md.  In  this  city,  he  met  Anne  Neale,  daughter 
of  a  prosperous  law-book  publisher  of  Irish  extraction,  and  a 
famous  beauty,  whom  he  married  as  soon  as  he  assumed  the 
duties  of  his  first  pastorate.  This  was  the  Congregational 


CAREER  OF  GROVEB  CLEVELAND.  503 

church  at  Windham,  Conn.,  where  he  lived  until  failing 
health  compelled  him  to  seek  a  home  in  the  South.  Returning 
to  the  North  at  the  end  of  a  year,  he  took  a  church  in  Cald- 
well,  N.  J.,  where  on  March  18,  1837,  a  son  named  Stephen 
Grover,  in  honor  of  the  minister  the  father  had  succeeded,  was 
born.  There  were  three  other  children,  Anne,  William 
Neale,  and  Mary,  all  older  than  Grover,  and  after  him,  Cecil, 
Frederick,  Margaret,  Susan,  and  Rose.  When  Grover  was 
three  years  old,  his  father  accepted  a  call  at  Fayetteville,  N.  Y., 
at  $600  a  year.  Here  Grover  went  to  the  district  school, 
where  he  did  not  especially  distinguish  himself.  In  fact, 
there  was  nothing  in  his  school-boy  career  to  mark  him  as 
superior  to  his  fellows.  At  this  time,  Richard  Cleveland's 
means  being  limited,  he  determined  that  it  would  be  well  to 
give  Grover  some  practical  business  experience,  which  he  did 
by  finding  him  a  position  as  a  clerk  in  a  Fayetteville  store  at 
|50  a  year.  A  biographer  says  of  this  period  of  Grover 
Cleveland's  career:  "There  is  unimpeachable  testimony  that 
whatever  the  boy's  hand  was  given  to  do,  he  did  with  all  his 
heart,  and  that  he  left  behind  him  the  reputation  for  bravery, 
fidelity,  and  candor  that  has  outlived  all  these  years."  The 
family  removed  to  Clinton,  N.  J.,  the  seat  of  Hamilton  Col- 
lege, when  Grover  was  eleven  years  of  age,  the  intention 
being  to  place  Grover  in  the  college,  William  being  already 
there.  Richard  Cleveland's  salary  was  now  $1,000  a  year, 
larger  than  it  had  ever  been,  and  he  was  encouraged  to  hope 
that  he  would  be  able  to  give  his  sons  as  thorough  an  educa- 
tion as  his  own  had  been. 

At  Clinton,  Grover  resumed  his  preparation  for  college, 
but  was  compelled  to  give  it  up  in  his  sixteenth  year,  when 
his  father,  who  had  been  called  to  Holland  Patent,  near 
Utica,  N.  Y.,  died  there  a  month  after  his  arrival.  This 
event  made  a  complete  change  in  the  situation  and  prospects 
of  the  family.  The  father's  income  had  barely  sufficed  for 
the  support  and  education  of  his  children.  It  became  appar- 


504  CAREER  OF  GROVER  CLEVELAND. 

ent  that  such  of  them  as  were  old  enough  would  have  to 
take  care  of  themselves  and  help  to  take  care  of  the  others. 
Although  the  gaining  of  a  college  education  had  been  the 
dearest  wish  of  his  life,  Grover  cheerfully  gave  it  up  and 
went  to  work. 

His  oldest  brother,  William,  was  at  this  time  a  teacher  in 
the  Institute  for  the  Blind  in  the  city  of  New  York.  He 
procured  for  Grover  the  place  of  clerk  and  assistant  teacher. 
William  had  recently  graduated  from  Hamilton  College,  and 
under  his  tuition  Grover  devoted  all  his  leisure  tune  to  the 
study  of  Latin  and  English  literature.  At  the  end  of  a 
year's  engagement  he  returned  to  his  mother's  house,  where, 
between  the  times  of  seeking  more  lucrative  employment  he 
still  continued  his  studies.  He  searched  for  work  in  Syra- 
cuse and  Utica,  but  without  success,  and  finally  made  up  Ins 
mind  to  go  West.  On  his  way  he  stopped  in  Buffalo  to 
visit  his  uncle,  Lewis  F.  Allen,  a  stock-breeder.  He  made 
the  journey  thither  Avith  twenty-five  dollars  in  his  pocket,  the 
amount  of  a  loan  from  a  deacon  in  his  father's  church,  for 
which  he  gave  a  note,  dated  May,  1858,  to  repay  the  sum  on 
demand.  His  ultimate  destination  was  Cleveland,  O.,  but 
his  uncle  induced  him  to  remain  in  Buffalo,  and  placed  him 
at  work  compiling  a  "  herd-book  "  containing  the  pedigrees 
of  full-blooded  short-horn  cattle.  For  this  work  he  received 
sixty  dollars ;  the  book  was  accurately  compiled  and  became 
a  standard  work,  and  is  such  to-day. 

Grover's  uncle  now  endeavored  to  find  him  a  place  in  a 
law-office,  where  the  lad  might  realize  his  ambition  to  become 
a  lawyer.  After  refusals  from  several  other  firms,  Rogers, 
Bowen  &  Rogers  gave  Grover  a  place  as  office  boy.  He  at 
once  set  to  work  with  the  dogged  perseverance  and  unflag- 
ging industry  which  have  characterized  his  whole  career,  to 
master  the  rudiments  of  the  law  and  to  make  himself  useful. 
Although  living  with  his  uncle  two  miles  out  of  town  he 
was  always  the  .first  to  arrive  in  the  morning  and  the  last  to  go 


CAREER    OF    GttOVER    CLEVELAND.  505 

at  night.  His  industry  was  appreciated,  and  in  a  few  months 
he  received  a  salary  of  four  dollars  a  week.  This  was  in- 
creased from  time  to  time,  and  after  his  admission  to  the  bar 
in  May,  1859,  he  was  made  managing  clerk  at  $600  a  year. 
In  1861  this  had  been  increased  to  $1,000  a  year,  and  then, 
at  the  age  of  twenty-five,  he  left  the  office  to  become  assist- 
ant district-attorney  of  Erie  County. 

Those  who  knew  Grover  Cleveland  at  this  period  of  his 
life  have  said  that  ho  won  success  by  his  industry,  courage, 
and  honesty.  He  was  thorough  in  all  he  undertook,  and, 
once  his  convictions  were  formed  upon  what  he  believed  to  be 
reliable  data,  nothing  could  change  them.  On  any  question 
he  was  studying,  he  was  reticent  until  he  had  familiarized 
himself  with  all  its  bearings,  then  ho  made  conclusions  from 
which  it  was  impossible  to  swerve  him.  He  adopted  a  rule 
to  complete  every  day's  work  so  that  it  would  not  have  to  be 
done  again,  and  the  late  hours  kept  by  the  President  at  his 
desk  in  the  Executive  Mansion  bear  testimony  to  the  habit  he 
contracted  in  his  young  manhood. 

His  appointment  as  assistant  district-attorney  came  to  him 
without  any  solicitation  on  his  part.  He  was  reluctant  to 
accept  it,  because  the  salary  was  only  six  hundred  dollars  a 
year.  Having  accepted  it  at  the  earnest  advice  of  friends,  he 
entered  .upon  his  new  work  with  all  the  energy  and  zeal  of 
youth.  The  district-attorney  lived  twenty-five  miles  out  of 
town,  and  therefore  most  of  the  work  devolved  upon  the 
assistant.  He  was  in  attendance  at  every  one  of  the  twelve 
grand  juries  which  met  during  each  of  the  three  years  of  his 
term  in  office,  and  presented  in  full  the  large  majority  of  the 
cases.  Nearly  all  the  indictments  during  that  period  were 
drawn  by  him,  and  more  than  half  the  cases  he  tried  in  court. 
On  more  than  one  occasion  he  conducted  four  cases  before  a 
jury,  won  a  favorable  verdict  in  each,  and  sat  down  at  eight 
o'clock  in  the  evening  to  make  preparations  for  the  next  day, 
not  rising  from  his  desk  until  three  o'clock  in  the  morning. 


506  CAREER  OF  GROVER  CLEVELAND. 

Eight  o'clock  found  him  again  at  the  office  for  the  day's  con- 
test with  some  of  the  best  criminal  practitioners  in  the 
country. 

During  his  term  of  office,  he  was  drafted  into  the  military 
service  of  the  United  States.  Two  of  his  brothers,  Cecil  and 
Frederick,  were  already  at  the  front.  His  brother  William 
at  Southampton,  Long  Island,  had  a  family  to  provide  for. 
Grover  was  supporting  his  mother  and  two  sisters  on  his 
salary  of  six  hundred  dollars.  At  the  advice  of  friends, 
therefore,  he  determined  to  find  a  substitute,  and  did  so,  the 
bounty  money  being  borrowed  from  the  district-attorney.  In 
1865,  at  the  age  of  twenty-nine,  he  was  nominated  for  district 
attorney  by  the  Democrats,  but  was  beaten  by  his  intimate 
personal  friend,  Lyman  K.  Bass,  with  whom  he  afterwards 
formed  a  law  partnership  —  in  1866.  Mr.  Cleveland  formed 
a  partnership  with  the  late  mayor  of  Buffalo,  Isaac  V.  Van- 
derpoel,  which  lasted  till  1869,  when  he  joined  the  firm  of 
Laning,  Cleveland  &  Folsom.  In  1867,  the  late  William 
Dorslieimer,  then  United  States  District  Attorney  for  the 
Buffalo  district,  offered  Mr.  Cleveland  the  position  of  assist- 
ant, which  he  declined.  In  1870,  his  friends  suggested  his 
name  as  candidate  for  the  office  of  sheriff,  and,  without  any 
effort  on  his  part,  he  received  the  unanimous  vote  of  the  Demo- 
cratic party,  and  was  elected  for  three  yeai-s.  The  office 
of  sheriff  is  the  most  important  executive  office  in  the  county, 
under  the  system  in  the  State  of  New  York.  The  duties  of 
this  position  were  filled  by  Mr.  Cleveland  with  the  same  at- 
tention and  business-like  fidelity  that  he  had  always  shown 
in  such  positions  as  he  had  held,  either  in  public  or  private 
life.  In  this,  the  first  important  executive  position  which  he 
had  filled,  he  did  justice  to  himself  and  to  those  whose  con- 
fidence he  had  secured,  and  by  whom  he  was  selected.  He 
had  for  the  first  time  in  many  years  sufficient  leisure  for  self- 
improvement,  and  the  income  of  the  office  was  large  enough 
to  permit  him  to  save* some  money.  His  position  in  Buffalo 


CAREER  OF  GROVER  CLEVELAND.  507 

politics  was  now  assured,  and  there  was  no  man  in  the  local 
Democracy  who  was  more  highly  esteemed. 

At  the  expiration  of  his  term  as  sheriff,  with  Lyman  K. 
Bass  and  Wilson  S.  Bissell,  the  law  firm  of  Bass,  Cleveland 
&  Bissell  was  formed,  and  was  one  of  the  strongest  in  Western 
New  York.  Judge  George  W.  Clinton  said  of  him  at  this 
time  :  "  In  his  jury  addresses  he  never  fired  over  the  heads  of 
the  jury  in  rhetorical  eloquence.  He  addressed  himself  to 
them  directly,'  as  an  honest,  sensible  man  speaking  to  his 
fellows,  and  he  won  his  verdicts  by  his  close  and  full  argu- 
ment and  his  thorough  knowledge  of  all  the  evidence  in  the 
case.  He  was  strictly  honorable,  and  never  endeavored  to 
take  petty  advantages  of  the  opposing  counsel  or  of  the  jury. 
At  the  time  he  became  mayor,  he  can  truthfully  be  said  to 
have  been  eminent  at  the  bar  of  Erie  County." 

In  1881  the  Reform  movement  in  Buffalo  was  organized, 
with  the  view  of  purging  the  city  of  the  corrupt  influences 
by  which  its  municipal  administration  was  surrounded. 

Party  lines  were  to  a  certain  extent  disorganized.  The 
city  had  been  badly  ruled  by  a  combination  of  Republican 
managers,  its  revenues  were  stolen  or  wasted,  and  no  mayor 
had  been  found,  for  many  years,  who  possessed  the  courage 
and  ability  to  attack  the  existing  abuses.  The  Democratic 
leaders  turned  to  Lawyer  Cleveland  as  the  man  to  win  the 
election.  He  was  nominated  by  acclamation,  and  in  his 
speech  of  acceptance  pledged  himself  if  elected  to  conduct 
the  office  of  mayor  in  the  interest  of  the  people  of  Buffalo. 
After  an  exciting  canvass,  he  was  elected  by  a  majority  of 
3,530,  while  on  the  same  day  the  Republican  State  ticket  had 
carried  the  city  by  a  majority  of  over  1,600.  During  the 
short  time  that  he  remained  in  office,  being  raised  to  the 
governorship  before  the  expiration  of  his  term  as  mayor, 
he  saved  the  city  more  than  $1,000,000  by  preventing  the 
consummation  of  corrupt  schemes  and  bargains  by  the  city 
council. 


508  CAREER  OF  GROVER  CLEVELAND. 

He  displayed  indomitable  pluck  and  grit,  a  thorough 
knowledge  of  the  law,  a  clear  perception  of  the  needs  and 
rights  of  the  city,  and  of  the  best  way  to  secure  them,  and  a 
sincere  determination  to  place  the  public  interests  above  the 
claims  of  party.  He  showed  how  easily  a  man  who  i; 
thoroughly  honest  and  thoroughly  earnest  can  gain  victory 
over  corrupt  combinations. 

In  September,  1882,  the  Republicans  of  New  York  nom- 
inated Charles  J.  Folger,  Secretary  of  the  Treasury,  for  Gov- 
ernor. The  influences  which  brought  about  his  nomination 
led  to  the  revolt  of  several  influential  Republican  news- 
papers, and  many  of  the  Republican  voters  announced  their 
intention  not  to  vote  for  him.  The  Democrats  nominated 
Mayor  Cleveland  to  oppose  Folger;  Cleveland's  letter  of 
acceptance,  written  in  his  characteristic,  vigorous  style, 
called  forth  hearty  commendation,  and  a  campaign  was 
inaugurated  which  was  notable  for  the  listlessness  of  the 
Republicans,  and  the  desertion  of  thousands  of  them  to 
rally  to  the  cause  of  the  Democracy.  Cleveland  achieved 
a  wonderful  triumph  at  the  polls,  his  majority  being 
192,854. 

The  traits  of  tireless  industry,  unostentatious  dignity, 
thoroughness  and  simplicity  noted  in  Grover  Cleveland's 
early  career  were  observable  during  his  stay  in  Albany. 
On  the  day  before  his  inauguration  as  Governor  he  came 
from  Buffalo  with  his  law  partner,  Mr.  Bissell,  went  to  the 
Executive  Mansion  and  spent  the  night.  The  next  day  the 
city  was  excited  with  the  approaching  ceremonies.  The 
streets  were  crowded,  but  there  was  no  military  parade  and 
no  procession.  Mr.  Cleveland  would  not  allow  it.  He 
walked  from  the  Executive  Mansion,  accompanied  by  Mr. 
Biosell,  to  the  Capitol,  a  mile  distant,  making  one  of  the 
throng  that  was  going  that  way.  He  entered  the  building 
unrecognized,  went  to  the  executive  chamber,  where  he  was 
met  by  Governor  Cornell.  The  moment  the  inaugural  cere- 


MRS.    FRANCES   CLEVELAND. 


509 


CAREER  OF  G ROVER  CLEVELAND.  511 

mony  was  over  he  passed  into  the  large  reception  room, 
which  had  been  set  apart  for  his  use,  ordered  that  the  doors 
should  be  open  to  admit  everybody,  and  when  the  handshak- 
ing was  over  he  went  immediately  to  work.  Never  was  an 
important  public  event  so  completely  stripped  of  fuss  and 
feathers,  and  never  was  a  more  radical  change  effected  in  the 
official  regime  of  the  executive  department. 

His  first  message  to  the  legislature  was  a  disappointment. 
He  intimated  that  a  newly  elected  Executive  could  hardlj- 
be  expected  "  to  present  a  complete  exhibit  of  State  affairs/ 
The  opposition  newspapers  throughout  the  State  made  fun 
of  the  message  without  stint,  but  the  truth  was  that  Mr. 
Cleveland  did  not  know  much  about  the  details  of  the  Gov- 
ernor's office  and  he  did  not  hesitate  to  say  that  he  did  not. 
He  would  not  pretend  to  a  knowledge  which  he  did  not 
possess.  But  shortly  after  his  inauguration  he  began  to  send 
vetoes  to  the  legislature,  which  called  down  upon  him  a 
storm  of  criticism,  and  drew  sharply  the  line  between  the 
friends  and  the  opponents  of  the  policy  in  government  which 
he  had  announced  while  Mayor  of  Buffalo. 

As  Governor,  he  displayed  the  same  fearless  devotion  to 
principle  which  had  characterized  his  administration  as  Mayor 
of  Buffalo.  His  numerous  vetoes  earned  him  the  title  of 
"  \reto  Governor."  He  worked  harder  than  any  of  his 
subordinates,  and  systematized  the  office  work  thoroughly. 
His  attention  was  directed  to  the  subject  of  pardons,  the 
decision  upon  which  had  heretofore  been  in  the  hands  of  a 
pardon  clerk,  and  he  at  once  assumed  the  responsibility  of 
the  examination  and  decision  upon  all  pardons  himself.  He 
was  especially  anxious  to  give  proper  attention  to  all  that 
related  to  the  amelioration  of  the  condition  of  laboring  men, 
and  through  the  fearless  use  of  his  veto  power  he  prevented 
the  enactment  into  statutes  of  several  measures  which  would 
have  been  injurious  to  this  class.  Under  his  administration 
a  State  Civil  Service  Reform  bill  and  a  bill  prohibiting  politi- 


512  CAREER  OF  OROVER  CLEVELAND. 

cal  assessments  became  laws.  A  bureau  of  labor  statistics 
was  also  established  with  his  approval,  and  with  results  of 
great  advantage  to  the  State.  Many  of  his  acts  excited 
adverse  comment,  and  antagonized  the  politicians,  but  the 
great  body  of  the  people  expressed  their  approval  of  his 
course.  No  one  questioned  his  earnestness,  and  his  mistakes 
were  of  the  head  rather  than  of  the  heart. 

Being  Governor  of  a  pivotal  State  by  an  overwhelming 
majority,  he  became  a  presidential  possibility  from  the  mo- 
ment of  his  election.  In  1884,  the  first  name  prominently 
mentioned  for  the  Democratic  nomination  for  President  was 
Samuel  J.  Tilden.  He  having  declined,  the  leaders  of  the 
New  York  Democracy  put  Governor  Cleveland  forward. 
This  was  in  the  eighteenth  month  of  his  term  as  Governor. 
There  were  at  the  time  mutterings  of  discontent  among  cer- 
tain classes  of  Republicans  due  to  the  prospective  nomination 
by  that  party  of  James  G.  Elaine.  The  conditions,  therefore, 
were  admirably  fitted  for  the  nomination  of  such  a  candidate 
by  the  Democrats  as  would  in  both  his  personal  and  political 
charactc?  commend  himself  to  his  party  and  to  those  Repub- 
licans who  were  about  to  "bolt"  the  nomination  of  Elaine. 
Such  a  candidate  was  found  in  Governor  Cleveland.  Led  by 
Daniel  Manning,  who  afterwards  was  Secretary  of  the  Treas- 
ury under  President  Cleveland,  the  New  York  delegation  to 
the  Democratic  National  Convention  cast  72  votes  for  Cleve- 
land and  thereby  made  his  nomination  certain.  Cleveland 
was  nominated  on  the  second  ballot,  receiving  683  votes. 
Thomas  F.  Bayard,  of  Delaware,  receiving  Sl£  votes,  and 
Thomas  A.  Hendricks,  of  Indiana,  receiving  45J  votes.  The 
campaign  which  followed  will  ever  be  memorable  for  the 
personal  abuse  of  both  candidates,  which  characterized  it.  It 
was  a  bitterly  fought  contest  from  start  to  finish,  and  re- 
sulted in  the  election  of  Cleveland.  The  decisive  votes  were 
those  of  New  York  State,  which  he  carried  by  the  narrow 
plurality  of  1,047  in  a  total  vote,  aggregating  about  one 


CAREER  OF  GROVER  CLEVELAND.  513 

million.  He  received  219  electoral  votes  to  182  for  Mr. 
Elaine,  and  a  plurality  of  the  popular  vote  of  69,806.  The 
support  which  Cleveland  received  from  the  Mugwumps,  to- 
gether with  the  effect  of  Dr.  Burchard's  famous  alliteration, 
undoubtedly  increased  his  strength. 

The  independent  support  of  Cleveland  was  due  princi- 
pally to  the  belief  that  as  President  he  would  set  himself 
above  the  politicians  of  his  party  and  conduct  his  office  in 
accordance  Avith  the  principles  of  civil  service  reform.  Soon 
after  his  election  but  before  his  inauguration  the  National 
Civil  Service  Reform  League  addressed  to  him  a  letter 
requesting  an  explicit  statement  regarding  his  views  on  the 
civil  service.  In  his  reply  he  expressed  himself  against  the 
removal  solely  on  partisan  grounds  of  a  certain  class  of  office- 
holders, but  in  favor  of  the  removal  of  those  who  had  proved 
themselves  "  offensive  partisans  and  unscrupulous  manipula- 
tors of  local  party  management."  The  month  after  his 
inauguration  he  gratified  the  reformers  but  antagonized  the 
politicians  by  reappointing  the  Republican  Postmaster  ai  New 
York,  Henry  G.  Pearson.  This  act  was  another  proof  of  his 
ability  to  withstand  the  pressure  of  partisanship,  and  of  his 
courage  in  the  face  of  certain  condemnation  and  loss  of 
political  advantage.  What  with  the  demands  upon  him  for 
the  "  spoils  of  office,"  and  his  pledges  to  observe  the  letter 
and  spirit  of  the  civil  service  law,  President  Cleveland  fre- 
quently experienced  embarrassments  which  would  have 
been  intolerable  to  a  less  patient  man.  Many  times  he 
antagonized  his  Mugwump  admirers,  but  no  less  often  than 
he  did  the  machine  politicians.  His  manifest  desire  to  do 
what  he  thought  was  right,  however,  strengthened  him 
quite  as  much  as  his  failure  to  satisfy  the  politicians  weak- 
ened him. 

The  Republican  Senate  tried  to  make  political  capital  out 
of  his  appointments  and  removals  by  demanding  the  papers 
upon  which  removals  and  appointments  were  made.  But 


514  CAREER  OF  GBOVER  CLEVELAND. 

in  this  their  efforts  were  wasted,  and  his  appointments  were 
confirmed.  His  annual  messages  to  Congress  were  always 
characterized  by  a  vigorous  discussion  of  public  questions, 
in  which  he  fearlessly  expressed  his  own  opinions,  sometimes 
to  the  great  dissatisfaction  of  the  party  leaders.  His  exer- 
cise of  the  veto  power  as  Governor  was  carried  to  equal,  if 
not  greater  length,  as  President.  Bills  involving  the  pay- 
ment of  private  claims  and  bills  appropriating  money  for 
public  buildings,  many  of  them  met  with  his  disapproval. 
The  Dependent  Pension  Bill,  permitting  a  pension  to  soldiers 
and  sailors  who  served  in  the  Civil  War  "  upon  the  ground  of 
service  and  present  disability  alone,  and  in  the  entire  absence 
of  any  injuries  received  by  the  casualties  or  incidents  of  such 
service,"  was  vetoed  by  President  Cleveland,  "  as  an  avowed 
departure  from  the  principle  thus  far  adhered  to  respecting 
Union  soldiers,  that  the  bounty  of  the  Government  in  the 
way  of  pensions  is  generously  bestowed  when  granted  to 
those  who,  in  their  military  service  and  in  the  line  of  military 
duty  have,  to  a  greater  or  less  extent,  been  disabled."  In  his 
message  he  called  attention  to  the  alleged  disregard  of  truth 
and  good  faith,  stimulated  by  pension  agents,  in  submitting 
claims  for  pensions.  Many  private  pension  claims  submitted 
for  his  signature  were  vetoed,  and  he  thus  laid  himself  open 
to  the  charge  of  being  unfriendly  to  the  soldier,  an  accusa- 
tion which  his  friends  have  always  stoutly  denied. 

Another  incident  of  his  administration  was  that  which  grew 
out  of  his  order  to  Adjutant-General  Drum  to  return  to  th& 
ex-Confederates  the  battle-flags,  then  in  a  dilapidated  con- 
dition in  the  Ordnance  Museum,  which  the  Union  armies  had 
captured.  This  order  aroused  the  members  of  the  Grand 
Army  of  the  Republic,  whose  leaders  attacked  the  President 
with  such  fierceness  that  he  revoked  the  order.  He  was  at 
the  time  contemplating  a  tour  of  the  South  which  should  in- 
clude St.  Louis,  Mo.,  during  the  Grand  Army  Encampment, 
but  it  was  declared  that  he  would  be  publicly  insulted  if 


CAREER  OP  GROVER  CLEVELAND.  515 

he  did  so.  This  purpose  of  the  offended  Union  veterans 
was  rebuked V  by  General  Sherman,  and  the  President 
visited  St.  Louis  without  indignity  either  to  him  or  his  high 
station.  * 

The  third  annual  message  of  President-  Cleveland,  submit- 
ted to  Congress  in  December,  1887,  seven  months  before  the 
Democratic  National  Convention  of  1888,  was  known  as  the 
Tariff  Message,  for  the  reason  that  in  it  he  made  direct  ap- 
peal to  the  country  in  behalf  of  a  radical  reduction  in  tariff 
duties,  in  order  to  prevent  the  accumulation  of  a  large  surplus 
in  the  Treasury.  The  phraseology  of  the  message  was  so 


GRAY   GABLES. 


pointed,  and  the  sentiments  it  expressed  were  so  clearly  in 
the  nature  of  a  challenge  to  the  Republican  party  to  make 
tin  issue  on  the  protection  basis,  that  Democrats  piid  Republi- 
cans alike  were  startled.  Many  of  Cleveland's  own  friends 
criticised  his  audacity  in  thus  forcing  an  issue  of  his  own 
choosing.  The  message,  too,  forced  the  Democratic  party  to 
renominate  him,  which  was  done  by  acclamation  at  the  Con- 
vention at  St.  Louis,  in  July,  1888.  In  the  election  which 
followed  in  November,  there  was  but  one  issue,  the  tariff. 
Benjamin  Harrison,  the  Republican  candidate,  was  elected, 
carrying  New  York  and  Indiana. 


516  CAREER  OF  GROVEK  CLEVELAND. 

The  marriage  of  President  Cleveland  to  Miss  Frances 
Folsom,  was  a  notable  event  in  the  administration.  It  took 
place  on  June  2,  1886,  in  the  Blue  Room  of  the  White 
Housfc.  The  bride  was  then  in  her  twenty-second  year, 
having  been  born  on  July  21,  1864.  Her  father  was  Oscar 
Folsom,  Cleveland's  former  law-partner  and  intimate  friend. 
At  Mr.  Folsom's  death  in  1875,  Mr.  Cleveland  became  her 
guardian.  She  was  well  educated,  had  the  social  instinct, 
and  was  beautiful  withal,  and  was  admirably  fitted  to  become 
the  mistress  of  the  White  House.  The  receptions  of  the 
bride  and  groom  lent  an  atmosphere  of  gaiety  to  the  White 
House  life  which  it  never  had  before,  so  that  the  Cleveland 
administration  was  distinguished  quite  as  much  for  its  social 
festivity  as  for  its  other  features.  Upon  the  inauguration  of 
Harrison,  the  Clevelands  left  Washington  to  live  in  New 
York  City,  where  the  ex-President  entered  upon  the  prac- 
tice of  the  law.  One  child,  baby  Ruth,  has  been  born 
to  Mrs.  Cleveland,  the  date  of  the  birth  being  October  3, 
1891. 


ADLAI  E.    STEVENSON. 


518 


ADLAI  E.  STEVENSON'S  CAREER. 


The  Democratic  candidate  for  Vice-President,  Gen.  Adlai 
Ewing  Stevenson,  of  Bloomington,  111.,  is  another  of  the 
Kentuckians  by  birth  who,  as  citizens  of  Illinois,  have  been 
named  for  national  political  honors. 

He  was  born  in  Christiansen  County,  Ky.,  near  the  county 
seat  of  Hopkinsville.  He  was  the  eldest  son  of  Mr.  and 
Mrs.  J.  T.  Stevenson.  The  family  originally  came  from 
Mecklenburg,  N.  C.  He  began  to  attend  school  at  the  age 
of  five  years,  his  uncle,  Dr.  T.  F.  Worrell,  who  died  in 
Bloomington  a  few  years  since,  being  the  instructor.  Young 
Stevenson  was  fond  of  history  and  always  showed  great 
interest  in  politics.  A  great  reader  and  a  hard  student,  he 
rapidly  went  to  the  front  among  his  schoolfellows.  At  the 
age  of  sixteen  he  came  with  the  family  to  Bloomington, 
where  they  resided  on  South  Albert  Street.  He  immediately 
entered  the  Illinois  Wesleyan  University  at  that  place,  which 
was  then  in  its  infancy.  When  twenty-one  years  old  he 
went  to  Danville,  Ky.,  and  entered  Center  College,  then  pre- 
sided over  by  the  Rev.  Lewis  W.  Green.  In  1857  he  was 
called  home  to  Bloomington  because  of  the  death  of  his 
father.  He  soon  began  the  reading  of  law  with  the  firm  of 
Williams  &  Packard,  later  the  firm  of  Williams  &  Burr. 
He  was  admitted  to  the  bar  in  1858.  He  did  not  practise  in 
Bloomington  at  first,  but  went  to  Metamora,  Woodford 
County,  where  he  remained  for  ten  years,  having  been  twice 
elected  prosecuting  attorney,  and  master  in  Chancery  of  the 
Circuit  Court  for  four  years. 

While    at   Danville    pursuing  his    studies,    he    met   Miss 

519 


520  ADLAI  E.  STEVENSON'S  CAREER. 

Letitia  Green,  daughter  of  the  Rev.  Lewis  W.  Green,  Presi- 
dent of  the  college  at  which  he  was  a  student.  The  courtship 
was  at  the  home  of  Mrs.  Scott,  a  sister  of  Miss  Green,  who 
lived  in  Chenoa,  111.,  and  there  the  marriage  ceremony  took 
place  in  December,  1866,  the  officiating  clergyman  being  the 
Rev.  Dr.  Craig,  now  of  the  McCormick  Seminary  in  Chicago. 
The  couple  afterwards  made  a  trip  through  Kentucky,  visit- 
ing the  places  where  they  were  known,  being  welcomed  with 
a  characteristic  warmth,  the  memory  of  which  is  still  fresh  in 
the  minds  of  the  people  of  that  section.  Four  children,  all 
of  whom  are  living,  have  been  born  to  them :  Louis  Green 
Stevenson,  aged  twenty-four  years ;  Mary  E.  Stevenson, 
aged  nineteen  years ;  Julia  Scott  Stevenson,  aged  eighteen 
years  ;  Letitia  Ewing  Stevenson,  aged  sixteen  years. 

General  Stevenson's  partnership  with  his  cousin,  James  S. 
Ewing,  which  still  exists,  began  in  1868.  The  young  men 
had  been  fast  friends  from  boyhood,  and  were  at  school  and 
college  together.  An  incident  of  the  boyhood  in  Blooming- 
ton,  is  related  as  follows  :  —  "  When  Stevenson  and  Jim 
Ewing  first  came  here  they  had  a  potato  patch  just  out  of 
town.  They  were  poor,  and  relied  on  the  potato  crop  to 
bring  them  in  spending  money.  One  day  they  brought  a 
load  of  potatoes  to  town,  and  while  passing  a  livery  stable 
the  liveryman  began  to  guy  them.  This  incensed  the  boys, 
and  they  decided  he  couldn't  have  them.  After  they  had 
sold  their  potatoes,  they  found  a  thumper  who  was  loafing 
about  the  corner  and  asked  him  if  he  wanted  a  job.  They 
told  him  they  wanted  him  to  thrash  a  man.  The  thumper 
asked  them  how  much  they  would  pay,  and  they  said  they 
would  give  him  all  they  had  realized  on  the  potatoes.  He 
accepted  the  job  and  they  told  him  to  get  in  the  wagon  and 
lie  down.  Then  they  drove  back  past  the  livery  stable.  The 
livery  man  was  still  standing  in  the  doorway,  and  young 
Stevenson  asked  if  he  had  changed  his  mind  about  them.  The 
livery  man  said  he  hadn't.  Then  the  boys  threw  the  linej 


ADLAI  E.  STEVENSON'S  CAREER.  521 

over  the  dash-board  and  made  a  rush  for  the  'soothless  in- 
sulter.'  Before  tlie  first  blow  was  dealt,  the  thumper,  who 
had  been  concealed  in  the  wagon,  leaped  over  the  wheels  and 
tackled  the  livery  man,  who  was  laid  up  for  repairs  in  con- 
sequence for  several  days.  Adlai  told  me  that  was  the  first 
time  and  last  time  he  had  ever  spent  any  money  for  a  fight." 

General  Stevenson's  ability  as  prosecuting  attorney  of 
Woodford  County  brought  him  into  prominence  before  the 
people,  and  in  1864  he  was  named  as  the  Democratic  Presi- 
dential elector  for  that  district.  In  the  campaign  of  General 
McClellan  as  the  nominee  of  his  party  for  the  Presidency  he 
canvassed  the  entire  State,  speaking  in  every  county.  In 
1874  he  was  elected  to  Congress  in  the  Bloomington  district, 
which  then  included  Tazewell  County,  and  which  had  been  up 
to  that  time  a  large  Republican  majority.  He  defeated  Gen. 
John  McNulta,  one  of  the  best  political  debaters  in  Illinois, 
after  a  most  exciting  and  bitter  canvass.  In  this  campaign 
Mr.  Stevenson  won  the  appellation  of  "  The  Great  Strad- 
dler  "  for  the  ease  and  success  with  which  he  rode  two  horses 
at  once  —  Democracy  and  Greenbackism.  He  made  a  close 
and  energetic  campaign,  and  his  election  was  a  genuine  sur- 
prise, especially  to  the  Republicans.  In  1876  he  was  defeated 
by  the  Hon.  Diedrich  C.  Smith,  of  Pekin,  soon  after  which  the 
district  was  changed  by  putting  Tazewell  County  into  the 
district  with  Sangamon,  and  outlining  the  present  Fourteenth 
District.  He  was  again  nominated  in  1878,  and  was  elected. 
He  was  a  delegate  to  the  National  Democratic  Convention  in 
1884,  and  in  1877  President  Hayes  appointed  him  a  member 
of  the  Board  to  inspect  the  Military  Academy  at  West  Point. 

His  military  title  was  not  won  in  the  field  of  wars,  but  is 
a  relic  of  his  service  of  the  United  States  Government  as 
First  Assistant  Postmaster-General  in  the  Cleveland  adminis- 
tration. At  this  time  he  was  styled  the  "axeman"  of  the 
administration,  because  he  decapitated  thousands  of  Republi- 
can post-masters  and  appointed  Democrats  in  their  places. 


522  ADLAI  K.  STEVENSON'S  CARKKB. 

Since  his  return  from  Washington  in  1889,  General  Stev- 
enson has  not  taken  an  active  part  in  the  business  of  his  law 
firm,  but  lias  devoted  his  time  largely  to  the, interests  of  the 
World's  Fair.  This  has  called  him  to  nearly  every  State  in 
the  South  and  several  times  to  Mexico.  Two  years  ago  he 
was  elected  President  of  the  Inter-State  Building  and  Loan 
Association  and  holds  that  office  at  present,  the  headquarters 
being  Bloomington.  He  has  for  many  years  been  a  stock- 
holder of  the  M.cLean  County  Coal  Company,  whose  mines 
are  in  Bloomington,  and  is  its  president.  The,  company  has 
always  employed  non-union  laboring  men,  and  under  the 
management  of  Mix  Matthew  T.  Scott  some  years  ago  dis- 
putes with  the  miners  were  frequent  and  strikes  not  uncom- 
mon. General  Stevenson  has  had  nothing  to  do  with  the 
active  management  of  the  mines  which  are  controlled  by  the 
Scott  estate.  He  is  also  a  stockholder  and  director  of 
the  People's  Bank  of  Bloomington. 

General  Stevenson's  personality  has  won  him  hosts  of 
friends,  and  in  Bloomington  his  political  opponents  were 
quite  as  delighted  with  his  nomination  as  were  those  who 
have  been  affiliated  with  him.  On  his  arrival  from  Chicago, 
on  the  evening  of  the  day  of  his  nomination,  Bloomington 
welcomed  him  in  a  manner  which  proved  that  he  is  one  of  her 
favorite  citizens.  A  procession,  in  which  the  citizens  joined, 
irrespective  of  party,  escorted  the  General  to  the  Soldiers' 
Monument,  where,  standing  on  a  gun-carriage,  lie  listened  to 
a  speech  of  welcome  and  of  eulogy  delivered  by  his  twice- 
defeated  Republican  opponent,  General  McNulta.  Replying 
General  Stevenson  said:  — 

"  MR.  MAYOR,  GEN.  McNuLTA,  AND  MY  TOWNSFOLK,  NEIGH- 
BORS,  AND  FRIENDS  :  I  have  no  word  with  which  to  express  the 
deep  gratitude  of  my  heart  for  the  generous  welcome  you  have 
given  me.  The  memory  of  it  will  perish  only  with  my  life.  To 
have  such  a  greeting  from  the  people  among  whom  I  have  lived 
for  more  than  a  third  of  a  century,  in  a  home  which  I  esteem 
even  more  than  the  great  honor  that  the  Democrats  of  this  great 


ADLAI  E.  STEVENSON'S  CAREER.  523 

and  glorious  nation  have  conferred  on  me,  is  an 'honor  of  which 
any  citizen  might  well  be  proud.  This  has  been  my  home  from 
early  boyhood.  All  that  makes  up  life,  the  joys,  the  sorrows, 
have  been  here,  and  I  have  been  proud  of  it.  I  have  loved  it, 
but  I  never  have  loved  this  beautiful  city  and  its  noble  people  as 
I  do  at  this  moment.  Words  cannot  express  my  gratitude,  my 
love;  I  can  only  say  I  thank  you  from  the  bottom  of  my  heart. 

"You  cannot  expect  an  extended  speech.  I  am  worn  out  with 
the  exacting  labors  of  the  Convention.  I  have  riot  had  the  time 
nor  the  energy  to  collect  my  thoughts  for  a  speech.  I  feel  that  I 
cannot  say  what  I  want  to  say  to  you ;  that  I  cordially  respond 
to  the  wish  of  General  McNulta  that  the  political  contest  upon 
which  we  now  enter  shall  be  one  of  intelligent  discussion  and  not 
of  personal  vilification  ;  that  it  shall  be  a  fight  for  the  great 
principles  of  Democracy  and  for  the  great  reform  for  which 
Democracy  stands,  differ  as  we  may  as  to  the  principles  and 
methods  of  government.  We  all  desire  the  best  interests  of  our 
common  country. 

"  Should  my  candidacy  be  successful,  I  dan  hardly  hope  at  the 
close  of  my  term  of  office  to  be  welcomed  to  my  home  as  I  have 
been  welcomed  to-day.  Should  I  be  doomed  to  defeat,  I  shall 
have  the  satisfaction  of  knowing  that  it  was  not  caused  by  the 
personal  hostility  of  my  countrymen,  and  that  the  few  remaining 
years  of  my  life  will  be  spent  in  the  most  beautiful  city  and 
among  the  most  generous  people  upon  this  earth.  Again,  my 
neighbors,  my  friends,  I  thank  you." 

A  Bloomington  man  who  has  made  a  study  of  Mr.  Steven- 
son's peculiarities,  says : 

"  When  Stevenson  is  not  telling  a  funny  story  he  always  has  a 
key-ring  full  of  keys  on  his  thumb.  He  has  a  way  of  throwing 
one  key  at  a  time  over  his  thumb  with  his  first  finger.  When  he 
is  in  that  attitude  you  can  always  bet  he  is  thinking  up  some 
new  story  or  plotting  a  joke  on  somebody.  When  he  was  First 
Assistant  Postmaster-General  he  always  went  through  that  motion 
before  he  fired  some  Republican  out  of  the  post-office. 

"  Stevenson  is  one  of  the  best  after-dinner  talkers  in  the  West. 
He  is  full  of  what  is  known  as  the  Kentucky  suavity.  But  as  an 
orator  I  do  not  regard  him  as  a  howling  success.  He  forgets  some 
of  his  Kentucky  polish  when  he  gets  on  the  stump.  As  he  warms 
up  to  his  subject,  he  takes  off  his  cuffs,  then  his  necktie,  then  his 
shirt  collar,  and  if  the  weather  is  very  warm  he  pulls  off  his  coat, 
and  he  thrashes  around  like  a  young  hurricane.  His  voice  on  an 
occasion  of  this  sort  becomes  husky,  ar.d  he  gets  red  in  the  face 
and  looks  as  if  he  was  going  to  have  an  attack  of  apoplexy. 


524  ADLAI    E.    STEVENSON  S    CAREER. 

"He  has  had* remarkable  success  at  the  bar  in  criminal  cases. 
In  any  case  where  he  appears  for  a  woman  he  is  effective.  One 
of  the  most  brilliant  speeches  he  ever  made  was  in  a  case  of  this 
sort.  In  his  office,  at  a  street  corner,  or  at  the  club,  he  is  one  of 
the  best  story  tellers  I  ever  heard,  but  when  he  gets  on  the  stump 
his  fund  of  humor  seems  to  run  out. 

"  He  is  a  member  of  the  Presbyterian  church,  doesn't  drink 
much,  never  swears,  and  never  tells  a  salacious  anecdote.  One 
of  the  most  prominent  traits  in  his  character  is  his  devotion  to  his 
family.  There  is  not  that  man  living  who  ever  heard  of  his 
neglecting  the  slightest  wants  of  his  household." 

Of  this  filial  trait  in  the  General,  Mrs.  Stevenson  herself 
says: 

"  Before  I  knew  him  I  had  almost  learned  to  love  him  on  ac- 
count of  his  devotion  to  his  mother.  It  may  seem  strange  that 
any  son  should  receive  special  credit  for  being  so  obedient  and 
dutiful  to  his  mother,  but  in  the  case  of  Mr.  Stevenson  his  devo- 
tion always  seemed  more  marked  than  in  anvone  of  whom  I  ever 
heard." 

Another  observer  of  General  Stevenson's  career  says  : 

"Much  of  Stevenson's  popularity  is  due  to  his  gallantry  to 
women.  He  wins  them  and  they  become  his  advocates.  It  the 
women  of  this  country  had  the  right  of  suffrage,  Stevenson  would 
be  elected  Vice-President  by  an  overwhelming  majority." 


WIM.IAM    C.    WHITNEY, 


526 


NOMINATION  OF  CLEVELAND. 


Grover  Cleveland  was  placed  in  nomination  by  Leon 
Abbett,  Governor  of  his  native  State  of  New  Jersey,  in  the 
following  speech :  — 

MR.  CHAIRMAN  AND  GENTLEMEN  OP  THE  CONVENTION  :  In 
placing  a  name  before  this  Convention,  I  speak  for  the  united 
Democracy  of  the  State  of  New  Jersey,  whose  loyalty  to  Demo- 
cratic principles,  faithful  service  to  the  party,  and  whose  contri- 
butions to  its  success  entitle  it  to  the  consideration  of  the 
Democracy  of  the  country.  Its  electoral  vote  has  always  been 
cast  in  support  of  Democratic  principles  and  Democratic  candi- 
dates. 

In  voicing  the  unanimous  wish  of  the  delegation  of  New 
Jersey,  I  present  as  their  candidate  for  the  suffrage  of  this  con- 
vention the  name  of  a  distinguished  Democratic  statesman  born 
upon  its  soil,  for  whom  in  two  presidential  contests  the  State  of 
New  Jersey  has  given  its  electoral  vote.  The  supreme  consider- 
ation in  the  mind  of  the  Democracy  of  New  Jersey  is  the  success 
of  the  Democratic  party  and  its  principles.  We  have  been  in 
the  past,  and  will  be  in  the  future,  ready  to  sacrifice  all  personal 
preferences  to  the  clear  expression  of  the  will  of  the  Democratic 
party.  It  is  because  that  this  name  will  awaken  throughout 
our  own  State  the  enthusiasm  of  the  Democracy  and  insure 
success ;  it  is  because  he  represents  the  great  Democratic  princi- 
ples and  policy  upon  which  this  entire  convention  is  a  unit;  it  is 
because  we  believe  that,  with  him  as  a  candidate,  the  Democracy 
of  the  Union  will  sweep  the  country  and  establish  its  principles 
throughout  the  length  and  breadth  of  the  land,  that  we  offer  to 
the  convention  as  a  nominee  the  choice  of  the  Democracy  of  New 
Jersey — Grover  Cleveland. 

If  any  doubt  existed  in  the  minds  of  the  Democracy  of  New 
Jersey  of  his  ability  to  lead  the  great  Democratic  hosts  to  victory, 
they  would  not  present  his  name  to-day ;  with  them  the  success 
of  the  party  and  the  establishment  of  its  principles  are  beyond 
their  love  of  admiration  for  any  man. 

We  feel  certain  that  every  Democratic  State,  though  its  pref- 

527 


528  NOMINATION    OP    CLEVELAND. 

erence  may  l>e  for  some  other  distinguished  Democrat,  will  give 
its  warm,  enthusiastic  and  earnest  support  to  the  nominee  of  this 
Convention.  The  man  whom  we  present  will  rally  to  his  party 
thousands  of  independent  voters,  whose  choice  is  determined  by 
their  personal  conviction  that  the  candidate  will  represent  prin- 
ciples dear  to  them,  and  whose  public  life  and  policy  gives 
assurance  that,  if  chosen  by  the  people,  they  will  secure  an  honest, 
pure,  and  conservative  administration,  and  the  great  interests  of 
the  country  will  be  encouraged  and  protected. 

The  time  will  come  when  other  distinguished  Democrats  who 
have  been  mentioned  in  connection  with  this  nomination  will  re- 
ceive that  consideration  to  which  the  great  services  they  have 
rendered  their  party  entitle  them.  But  we  stand  to-day  in  the 
presence  of  the  fact  that  the  majority  of  the  Democratic  masses 
throughout  the  country,  rank  and  file,  the  millions  of  its  voters, 
demand  the  nomination  of  Grover  Cleveland. 

The  sentiment  is  so  strong  and  overpowering  that  it  has 
attracted  and  controlled  the  actions  of  delegates  who  would 
otherwise  present  the  name  of  some  distinguished  leader  of  their 
own  State,  with  whom  they  feel  victory  would  be  assured,  and  in 
whom  the  entire  country  would  feel  confidence.  But  the  people 
have  spoken,  and  favorite  sons  and  leaders  are  standing  aside  in 
deference  to  their  will. 

Shall  we  listen  to  the  voice  of  the  Democracy  of  the  Union  ? 
Shall  we  place  on  our  banners  the  name  of  the  man  of  their  choice, 
the  man  in  whom  they  believe  ;  or  shall  we  for  any  consideration  of 
policy  or  expediency,  hesitate  to  obey  their  will  ? 

I  have  sublime  faith  in  the  expression  of  the  people  when  it  is 
clear  and  distinct.  When  the  question  before  them  is  one  that 
has  excited  discussion  and  debate ;  when  it  appeals  to  their 
interests  and  their  feelings;  when  it  calls  for  the  exercise  of  their 
judgment,  and  when  they  say  we  want  this  man,  and  we  can 
elect  him,  we,  their  representatives,  must  not  disobey  or  disap- 
point them.  It  is  incumbent  upon  us  to  obey  their  wishes  and 
concur  in  their  judgment.  Then,  having  given  them  the  candi- 
date of  their  choice,  they  will  give  us  their  best,  their  most  ener- 
getic efforts  to  secure  success. 

We  confidently  rely  upon  the  loyal  and  successful  work  of 
the  Democratic  leaders  who  have  advocated  other  candidates. 
We  know  that  in  the  great  State  across  the  river  from  New 
Jersey,  now  controlled  by  the  Democracy,  there  is  no  Democrat 
who  will  shirk  the  duty  of  making  an  effort  to  secure  the  success 
of  the  candidate  of  this  convention,  notwithstanding  his  judgment 
may  differ  from  that  of  the  majority.  The  Democracy  of  New 
York  and  their  great  leaders,  whose  efforts  and  splendid  general- 


NOMINATION.  OF    CLEVELAND.  529 

ship  have  given  to  us  a  Democratic  senator  and  governor,  will 
always  be  true  to  the  great  party  they  represent ;  they  will  not 
waver  in  the  coming  canvass,  nor  will  they  rest  until  they  have 
achieved  success.  Their  grand  victories  of  the  past,  their  natural 
and  honorable  ambition,  their  unquestioned  Democracy,  will 
make  them  arise  and  fight  as  never  before,  and  with  those  that 
they  represent  and  lead,  they  will  marshal  the  great  independent 
vote,  and  we  will  again  secure  Democratic  victory  in  New  York. 

The  grand  Democrats,  under  whose  leadership  the  people  4>f 
New  York  are  now  governed,  will  give  to  the  cause  the  great 
weight  of  organization. 

The  thundering  echoes  of  this  Convention  announcing  the 
nomination  of  Grover  Cleveland  will  not  have  died  out  over  the 
hills  and  through  the  valleys  of  this  land  before  you  will  hear  and 
see  all  our  leaders  rallying  to  the  support  of  our  candidate. 
They  will  begin  their  efforts  for  organization  and  success,  and 
continue  their  work  until  victory  crowns  their  efforts.  All  Demo- 
crats will  fight  for  victory,  and  they  will  succeed,  because  the 
principles  of  the  party  enunciated  here  are  for  the  best  interests 
of  the  country  at  large,  and  because  the  people  of  this  land  have 
unquestioning  faith  that  Grover  Cleveland  will  give  the  country 
a  pure,  honest,  and  stable  government,  and  an  administration  in 
which  the  great  business  interests  of  the  country  and  the  agricul- 
tural and  laboring  interests  of  the  masses  will  receive  proper  and 
due  consideration. 

The  question  has  been  asked  why  it  is  that  the  masses  of  the 
party  demand  the  nomination  of  Grover  Cleveland.  Why  is  it 
that  this  man  who  has  no  offices  to  distribute,  no  wealth  to  com- 
mand, should  have  secured  the  spontaneous  support  of  the  great 
body  of  Democracy?  Why  is  it  that,  with  all  that  has  been 
urged  against  him,  the  people  still  cry :  "  Give  us  Cleveland  "  ? 
Why  is  it  that,  although  he  has  pronounced  in  clear,  earnest,  and 
able  language  his  views  upon  questions  upon  which  some  of  his 
party  may  differ  with  him,  he  is  still  near  and  dear  to  the  masses  ? 
It  is  because  he  has  crystallized  into  a  living  issue  the  great  prin- 
ciple upon  which  this  battle  is  to  be  fought  out  at  the  coming 
election. 

If  he  did  not  create  tariff  reform,  he  has  made  it  a  presidential 
issue  ;  he  vitalized  it  and  presented  it  to  our  party  as  the  issue 
for  which  we  could  fight  and  continue  to  battle  until  upon  it 
victory  is  now  assured.  There  are  few  men  in  his  position  who 
would  have  had  the  courage  to  boldly  make  the  issue  of  tariff 
reform  and  present  it  clearly  and  forcibly  as  he  did  in  his  great 
message  of  1887.  I  believe  that  his  policy  then  was  to  force  a 
national  issue  which  would  appeal  to  the  judgment  of  the  people. 


530  NOMINATION    OF    CLEVELAND. 

We  must  honor  a  man  who  is  honest  enough  and  hold  enough, 
under  such  circumstances,  to  proclaim  that  the  success  of  the 
party  upon  principle  is  better  than  evasion  or  shirking  of  the 
true  national  issues  for  temporary  success.  When  victory  is 
obtained  upon  principle  it  forms  the  solid  foundation  of  party 
success  in  the  future.  It  is  no  longer  the  question  of  a  battle  to 
be  won  on  the  mistakes  of  our  foes,  but  it  is  a  victory  to  be 
accomplished  by  a  charge  along  the  whole  line  under  the  banner 
of  principle. 

There  is  another  reason  why  the  people  demand  his  nomina- 
tion. They  feel  that  the  tariff  reform  views  of  President  Cleve- 
land and  the  principles  laid  down  in  his  great  message,  whatever 
its  temporary  effect  may  have  been,  gave  us  a  living  and  vital 
issue  to  fight,  which  has  made  the  great  victories  since  1888 
possible. 

It  consolidated  in  one  solid  phalanx  the  Democracy  of  the 
nation.  In  every  State  of  this  Union  that  policy  has  been  placed 
in  Democratic  platforms,  and  our  battles  have  been  fought  upon 
it,  and  this  great  body  of  representative  Democrats  has  seen  its 
good  results.  Every  man  in  this  convention  recognizes  this  as 
the  policy  of  the  party.  In  Massachusetts  it  gave  us  a  Russell ; 
in  Iowa  it  gave  us  a  Boies ;  in  Wisconsin  it  gave  us  a  Peck  for 
Governor  and  Vilas  for  secretary.  In  Michigan  it  gave  us  Wy- 
mans  for  Governor  and  gave  us  a  Democratic  legislature,  and 
will  give  us  eight  votes  for  President.  In  Ohio,  in  1889,  it  gave 
us  James  Campbell  for  Governor,  and  in  1891  to  defeat  him  it 
required  the  entire  wealth  and  power  of  the  Republican  party. 
In  Pennsylvania  it  gave  us  Robert  E.  Pattison.  In  Connecticut 
it  gave  us  a  Democratic  Governor,  who  was  kept  out  of  office  by 
the  infamous  conduct  of  the  Republican  party. 

In  New  Hampshire  it  gave  us  a  legislature,  of  which  we  were 
defrauded.  In  Illinois  it  gave  us  a  Palmer  for  senator,  and  in 
Nebraska  it  gave  us  Boyd  for  Governor. 

In  the  great  Southern  States  it  has  continued  in  power  the 
Democratic  party.  In  New  Jersey  the  power  of  the  Democracy 
has  been  strengthened,  and  the  legislature  and  executive  are  now 
both  Democrat.  In  the  great  State  of  New  York  it  has  given  us 
the  great  David  B.  Hill  for  senator,  and  Roswell  P.  Flower  for 
Governor.  With  all  these  glorious  achievements,  it  is  the  wisest 
and  best  policy  to  nominate  again  the  man  whose  policy  made 
these  successes  possible.  The  people  believe  that  these  victories, 
which  gave  us  a  Democratic  House  of  Representatives  in  1890 
and  Democratic  governors  and  senators  in  Republican  and  doubt- 
ful States,  are  due  to  the  courage  and  wisdom  of  Grover  Cleveland. 
And  so  believing,  they  recognize  him  as  their  great  leader. 


NOMINATION    OF    CLEVELAND.  631 

In  presenting  this  name  to  the  Convention,  there  is  no  reflec- 
tion upon  any  of  the  masterful  leaders  of  the  party.  The  vic- 
tories which  have  been  obtained  are  not  alone  the  heritage  of 
those  States;  they  belong  to  the  whole  party.  I  feel  that  every 
Democratic  State,  and  that  every  individual  Democrat,  has 
reason  to  rejoice  and  be  proud  and  applaud  these  splendid 
successes.  The  candidacy  of  Grover  Cleveland  is  not  a  reflection 
upon  others;  it  is  not  antagonistic  to  any  great  Democratic 
leader.  He  comes  before  this  Convention,  not  as  the  candidate  of 
any  one  State.  He  is  the  choice  of  the  great  majority  of  Demo- 
cratic voters. 

The  Democracy  of  New  Jersey  presents  to  this  Convention,  in 
this  the  people's  year,  their  nominee,  the  nominee  of  the  people, 
the  plain,  blunt,  honest  citizen,  the  idol  of  the  Democratic  masses 
—  Grover  Cleveland. 


THE  DEMOCRATIC  PLATFORM. 


Section  1.  The  representatives  of  the  Democratic  party 
of  the  United  States,  in  national  convention  assembled,  do 
reaffirm  their  allegiance  to  the  principles  of  the  party  as 
formulated  by  Jefferson  and  exemplified  by  the  long  and 
illustrious  line  of  his  successors  in  Democratic  leadership, 
from  Madison  to  Cleveland ;  we  believe  the  public  welfare 
demands  that  these  principles  be  applied  to  the  conduct  of 
the  Federal  Government  through  the  power  of  the  party  that 
advocates  them  ;  and  we  solemnly  declare  that  the  need  of 
a  return  to  those  fundamental  principles  of  a  free  popular 
.  government,  based  on  home  rule  and  individual  liberty,  was 
never  more  urgent  than  now,  when  the  tendency  to  centralize 
all  power  at  the  federal  capital  has  become  a  menace  to  the 
reserved  rights  of  the  States  that  strikes  at  the  very  roots  of 
our  government  under  the  Constitution  as  framed  by  the 
fathers  of  the  republic. 

Sec.  2.  We  warn  the  people  of  our  common  country, 
jealous  for  the  preservation  of  their  free  institutions,  that  the 
policy  of  federal  control  of  elections,  to  which  the  Republi- 
can party  has  committed  itself,  is  fraught  with  the  gravest 
dangers,  scarcely  less  momentous  than  would  result  from  a 
revolution,  practically  establishing  monarchy  on  ^he  ruins  of 
the  republic.  It  strikes  at  the  North  as  well  as  the  South, 
and  injures  the  colored  citizen  even  more  than  the  white  ;  it 
means  a  horde  of  deputy  marshals  at  every  polling  place, 
armed  with  federal  power,  returning  boards  appointed  and 
controlled  by  federal  authority,  the  outrage  of  the  electoral 
rights  of  the  people  in  the  several  States,  the  subjugation  of 

532 


THE  DEMOCRATIC  PLATFORM.  533 

the  colored  people  to  the  control  of  the  party  in  power  and 
the  reviving  of  race  antagonisms,  now  happily  abated,  of  the 
utmost  peril  to  the  safety  and  happiness  of  all,  a  measure 
deliberately  and  justly  described  by  a  leading  Republican 
senator  as  "  the  most  infamous  bill  that  ever  crossed  the 
threshold  of  the  Senate." 

Such  a  policy,  if  sanctioned  by  law,  would  mean  the 
dominance  of  a  self-perpetuating  oligarchy  of  office-holders, 
and  the  party  first  intrusted  with  its  machinery  could  be  dis- 
lodged from  power  only  by  an  appeal  to  the  reserved  rights  of 
the  people  to  resist  opposition,  which  is  inherent  in  all  self- 
governing  communities.  Two  years  ago  this  revolutionary 
policy  was  emphatically  condemned  by  the  people  at  the 
polls ;  but,  in  contempt  of  that  verdict,  the  Republican 
party  has  defiantly  declared  in  its  latest  authoritative  utter- 
ance that  its  success  in  the  coming  elections  will  mean  the 
enactment  of  the  force  bill  and  the  usurpation  of  despotic 
control  over  elections  in  all  the.  States. 

Believing  that  the  preservation  of  republican  government 
in  the  United  States  is  dependent  upon  the  defeat  of  this 
policy  of  legalized  force  and  fraud,  we  invite  the  support  of 
all  citizens  who  desire  to  see  the  Constitution  maintained  in 
its  integrity,  with  the  laws  pursuant  thereto,  which  have 
given  our  country  a  hundred  years  of  unexampled  prosperity ; 
and  we  pledge  the  Democratic  party,  if  it  be  intrusted  with 
power,  not  only  to  the  defeat  of  the  force  bill,  but  also  to 
relentless  opposition  to  the  Republican  policy  of  profligate 
expenditure  which,  in  the  short  space  of  two  years,  has 
squandered  an  enormous  surplus  and  emptied  an  overflowing 
treasury,  after  piling  new  burdens  of  taxation  upon  the 
already  overtaxed  labor  of  the  country. 

Sec.  3.  We  denounce  Republican  protection  as  a  fraud,  a 
robbery  of  the  great  majority  of  American  people  for  the 
benefit  of  the  few.  We  declare  it  to  be  a  fundamental 
principle  of  the  Democratic  party  that  the  Federal  Government 


534  THE    DEMOCRATIC    PLATFOBM. 

has  no  constitutional  power  to  enforce  and  collect  tariff 
duties  except  for  the  purpose  of  revenue  only,  and  demand 
that  the  collection  of  such  taxes  shall  be  linafe&l  to  the 
necessities  of  the  government,  and  honestly  and  economically 
administered. 

We  denounce  the  McKinley  tariff  law  enacted  by  the 
Fifty-First  Congress  as  the  culminating  atrocity  of  class  legis- 
lation ;  we  indorse  the  efforts  made  by  the  Democrats  of  the 
present  Congress  to  modify  its  most  oppressive  features  in 
the  direction  of  free  raw  materials  and  cheaper  manufactured 
goods  that  enter  into  general  consumption ;  and  we  promise 
its  repeal  as  one  of  the  beneficent  results  that  will  follow  the 
action  of  the  people  in  entrusting  power  to  the  Democratic 
party. 

Since  the  McKinley  tariff  went  into  operation  there  have 
been  ten  reductions  of  the  wages  of  laboring  men  to  one 
increase.  We  deny  that  there  ha's  been  any  increase  of 
prosperity  to  the  country  since  that  tariff  went  into  operation, 
and  we  point  to  the  dulness  and  distress,  the  wage  reductions 
and  strikes  in  the  iron  trade  as  the  best  possible  evidence 
that  no  such  prosperity  has  resulted  from  the  McKinley  act. 

We  call  the  attention  of  thoughtful  Americans  to  the  fact 
that,  after  thirty  years  of  restrictive  taxes  against  the  im- 
portation of  foreign  wealth  in  exchange  for  our  agricultural 
surplus,  the  homes  and  farms  of  the  country  have  become 
burdened  with  a  real  estate  mortgage  debt  of  over  $2,500,- 
000,000,  exclusive  of  all  other  forms  of  indebtedness ;  that 
in  one  of  the  chief  agricultural  States  of  the  West  there 
appears  a  real  estate  mortgage  debt  averaging  one  hundred 
and  fifty-three  dollars  per  capita  of  the  total  population,  and 
that  similar  conditions  and  tendencies  are  shown  to  exist  in 
the  other  agricultural  exporting  States.  We  denounce  a 
policy  which  fosters  no  industry  so  much  as  it  does  that  of 
the  sheriff. 

Sec.  4.  Trade  interchange  on  the  basis  of  reciprocal  advan- 


THE  DEMOCRATIC  PLATFORM.  535 

tages  to  the  countries  participating  is  a  time-honored  doctrine 
of  the  Democratic  faith,  but  we  denounce  the  sham  reciprocity 
which  juggles  with  the  people's  desire  for  enlarged  foreign 
markets  and  freer  exchanges  by  pretending  to  establish  closer 
trade  relations  for  a  country  whose  articles  of  export  are 
almost  exclusively  agricultural  products  with  other  countries 
that  are  also  agricultural,  while  erecting  a  custom  house  bar- 
rier of  prohibitive  tariff  taxes  against  the  richest  countries  of 
the  world  that  stand  ready  to  take  our  entire  surplus  of 
products  and  to  exchange  therefor  commodities  which  are 
necessaries  and  comforts  of  life  among  our  own  people. 

Sec.  5.  We  recognize  in  the  trusts  and  combinations,  which 
are  designed  to  enable  capital  to  secure  more  than  its  just 
share  of  the  joint  product  of  capital  and  labor,  a  natural  con- 
sequence of  the  prohibitive  taxes  which  prevent  the  free 
competition  which  is  the  life  of  honest  trade,  but  we  believe 
their  worst  evils  can  be  abated  by  law,  and  we  demand  -the 
rigid  enforcement  of  the  laws  made  to  prevent  and  control 
them,  together  with  such  further  legislation  in  restraint  of 
their  uses  as  experience  may  show  to  be  necessary. 

Sec.  6.  The  Republican  party,  while  professing  a  policy  of 
reserving  the  public  land  for  small  holdings  by  actual  settlers, 
has  given  away  the  people's  heritage  till  now  a  few  railroads 
and  non-resident  'alrens,  individual  and  corporate,  possess  a 
larger  area  than  that  of  all  our  farms  between  the  two  seas. 
The  last  Democratic  administration  reversed  the  improvident 
and  unwise  policy  of  the  Republican  party  touching  the  pub- 
lic domain,  and  reclaimed  from  corporations  and  syndicates, 
alien  and  domestic,  and  restored  to  the  people  nearly  100,- 
000,000  acres  of  valuable  land,  to  be  sacredly  held  as  home- 
steads for  our  citizens,  and  we  pledge  ourselves  to  continue 
this  policy  until  ever/  acre  of  land  so  unlawfully  held  shall 
be  reclaimed  and  restored  to  the  people. 

Sec.  7.  We  denounce  the  Republican  legislation  known  as 
the  Sherman  act  of  1890  as  a  cowardly  makeshift,  fraught 


536  THE  DEMOCRATIC  PLATFORM. 

with  possibilities  of  danger  in  the  future  which  should  make 
all  of  its  supporters,  as  well  as  its  author,  anxious  for  its 
speedy  repeal.  We  hold  to  the  use  of  both  gold  and  silver 
as  the  standard  money  of  the  country,  and  to  the  coinage  of 
both  gold  and  silver  without  discriminating  against  either 
metal  or  charge  for  mintage,  but  the  dollar  unit  of  coinage  of 
both  metals  must  be  of  equal  intrinsic  and  exchangeable 
value,  or  be  adjusted  through  international  agreement,  or  by 
such  safeguards  of  legislation  as  shall  insure  the  maintenance 
of  the  parity  of  the  metals  and  the  equal  power  of  every 
dollar  at  all  times  in  the  markets  and  in  the  payment  of 
debts ;  and  we  demand  that  all  paper  currency  shall  be  kept 
at  par  with  and  redeemable  in  such  coin.  We  insist  upon 
this  policy  as  especially  necessary  for  the  protection  of  the 
farmers  and  laboring  classes,  the  first  and  most  defenceless 
victims  of  unstable  money  and  a  fluctuating  currency. 

Sec.  8.  We  recommend  that  the  prohibitory  10  per  cent. 
tax  on  State  bank  issues  be  repealed. 

Sec.  9.  Public  office  is  a  public  trust.  We  reaffirm  the 
declaration  of  the  Democratic  national  convention  of  1876 
for  the  reform  of  the  civil  service,  and  we  call  for  the  honest 
enforcement  of  all  laws  regulating  the  same.  The  nomina- 
tion of  a  President,  as  in  the  recent  Republican  convention, 
by  delegations  composed  largely  of  his  appointees,  holding 
office  at  his  pleasure,  is  a  scandalous  satire  upon  free  popular 
institutions,  and  a  startling  illustration  of  the  methods  by 
which  a  President  may  gratify  his  ambition.  We  denounce 
a  policy  under  which  federal  office-holders  usurp  control  of 
party  conventions  in  the  States,  and  we  pledge  the  Democratic 
party  to  the  reform  of  these  and  all  other  abuses  which 
threaten  individual  liberty  and  local  self-government. 

Sec.  10.  The  Democratic  party  is  the  only  party  that  has 
ever  given  the  country  a  foreign  policy  consistent  and  vigo- 
rous, compelling  respect  abroad  and  inspiring  confidence  at 
home.  While  avoiding  entangling  alliances,  it  has  aimed  to 


THE  DEMOCRATIC  PLATFORM.  537 

cultivate  friendly  relations  with  other  nations,  and  especially 
with  our  neighbors  on  the  American  continent  whose  destiny 
is  closely  linked  with  our  own,  and  we  view  with  alarm  the 
tendency  to  a  policy  of  irritation  and  bluster,  which  is  liable 
at  any  time  to  confront  us  with  the  alternative  of  humiliation 
or  war.  We  favor  the  maintenance  of  a  navy  strong  enough 
for  all  purposes  of  national  defence,  and  to  properly  maintain 
the  honor  and  dignity  of  the  country  abroad. 

Sec.  11.  This  country  has  always  been  the  refuge  of  the 
oppressed  from  every  land,  exiles  for  conscience  sake,  and  in 
the  spirit  of  the  founders  of  our  government  we  condemn  the 
oppression  practised  by  the  Russian  government  upon  its 
Lutheran  and  Jewish  subjects,  and  we  call  upon  our  national 
government,  in  the  interest  of  justice  and  humanity,  by  all 
just  and  proper  means,  to  use  its  prompt  and  best  efforts  to 
bring  about  a  cessation  of  these  cruel  persecutions  in  the 
dominions  of  the  vCzar,  and  to  secure  to  the  oppressed  equal 
rights. 

We  tender  our  profound  and  earnest  sympathy  to  those 
lovers  of  freedom  who  are  struggling  for  home  rule  and  the 
great  cause  of  local  self-government  in  Ireland. 

Sec.  12.  We  heartily  approve  all  legitimate  efforts  to  pre- 
vent the  United  States  from  being  used  as  the  dumping 
ground  for  the  known  criminals  and  professional  paupers  of 
Europe,  and  we  demand  the  rigid  enforcement  of  the  law 
against  Chinese  immigration  or  the  importation  of  foreign 
workmen  under  contract  to  degrade  American  labor  and 
lessen  the  wages,  but  we  condemn  and  denounce  any  and  all 
attempts  to  restrict  the  immigration  of  the  industrious  and 
worthy  of  foreign  lands. 

Sec.  13.  This  Convention  hereby  renews  the  expression 
of  appreciation  of  the  patriotism  of  the  soldiers  and  sailors 
of  the  Union  in  the  war  for  its  preservation,  and  we  favor 
just  and  liberal  pensions  for  all  disabled  Union  soldiers,  their 
widows  and  dependents,  but  we  demand  that  the  work  of  the 


538  THE    DEMOCRATIC    PLATFORM. 

pension  office  shall  be  done  industriously,  impartially,  and 
honestly.  We  denounce  the  present  administration  of  that 
office  as  incompetent,  corrupt,  disgraceful,  and  dishonest. 

Sec.  14.  The  Federal  Government  should  care  for  and  im- 
prove the  Mississippi  River  and  other  great  waterways  of  the 
republic,  so  as  to  secure  for  the  interior  States  easy  and 
cheap  transportation  to  the  tide  water. 

When  any  waterway  of  the  republic  is  of  sufficient  impor- 
tance to  demand  the  aid  of  the  government,  such  aid  should 
be  extended  by  a  definite  plan  of  continuous  work  until  per- 
manent improvement  is  secured. 

Sec.  15.  For  purposes  of  national  defence  and  the  promo- 
tion of  commerce  between  the  States',  we  recognize  the  early 
construction  of  the  Nicaragua  Canal,  and  its  protection  against 
foreign  control,  as  of  great  importance  to  the  United  States. 

Sec.  16.  Recognizing  the  World's  Columbian  Exposition 
as  a  national  undertaking  of  vast  importance,  in  which  the 
general  government  has  invited  the  co-operation  of  all  the 
powers  of  the  world,  and  appreciating  the  acceptance  by 
many  of  such  powers  of  the  invitation  extended,  and  the 
broadest  liberal  efforts  being  made  by  them  to  contribute  to 
the  grandeur  of  the  undertaking,  we  are  of  the  opinion  that 
Congress  should  make  such  necessary  financial  provision  as 
shall  be  requisite  to  the  maintenance  of  the  national  honor 
and  public  faith. 

Sec.  17.  Popular  education  being  the  only  safe  basis  of 
popular  suffrage,  we  recommend  to  the  several  States  most 
liberal  appropriations  for  the  public  schools.  Free  .common 
schools  are  the  nursery  of  good  government,  and  they  have 
always  received  the  fostering  care  of  the  Democratic  party, 
which  favors  every  means  of  increasing  intelligence.  Freedom 
of  education  being  an  essential  of  civil  and  religious  liberty, 
as  well  as  a  necessity  for  the  development  of  intelligence, 
must  not  be  interfered  with  under  any  pretext  whatever.  We 
are  opposed  to  State  interference  with  parental  rights  and 


THE  DEMOCRATIC  PLATFORM.  539 

rights  of  conscience  in  the  education  of  children,  as  an  in- 
fringement of  the  Democratic  doctrine  that  the  largest  indi- 
vidual liberty  consistent  with  the  rights  of  others  ensures  the 
highest  type  of  American  citizenship  and  the  best  government. 

Sec.  18.  We  approve  the  action  of  the  present  Honse  of 
Representatives  in  passing  bills  for  the  admission  into  the 
Union  as  States  of  the  Territories  of  New  Mexico  and 
Arizona,  and  we  favor  the  early  admission  of  all  Territories 
having  necessary  population  and  resources  to  admit  them  to 
statehood,  and  while  they  remain  Territories  we  hold  that  the 
officials  appointed  to  administer  the  government  of  any  Terri- 
tory, together  with  the  District  of  Columbia  and  Alaska, 
should  be  bona  fide  residents  of  the  Territory  or  district  in 
which  their  duties  are  to  be  performed.  The  Democratic 
party  believes  in  home  rule  and  the  control  of  their  own 
affairs  by  the  people  of  the  vicinage. 

Sec.  19.  We  favor  legislation  by  Congress  and  State  legis- 
latures to  protect  the  lives  and  limbs  of  railway  employees 
and  those  of  other  hazardous  transportation  companies,  and 
denounce  the  inactivity  of  the  Republican  party,  and  particu- 
larly the  Republican  Senate,  for  causing  the  defeat  of  meas- 
ures beneficial  and  protective  to  this  class  of  wage-workers. 

Sec.  20.  We  are  in  favor  of  the  enactment  by  the  States 
of  laws  for  abolishing  the  notorious  sweating  system,  for 
abolishing  contract  convict  labor,  and  for  prohibiting  the  em- 
ployment in  factories  of  children  under  fifteen  years  of  age. 

Sec.  21.  We  are  opposed  to  all  sumptuary  laws  as  an  inter- 
ference with  the  individual  rights  of  the  citizen. 

Sec.  22.  Upon  this  statement  of  principles  and  policies  the 
Democratic  party  asks  the  intelligent  judgment  of  the  Ameri- 
can people.  It  asks  a  change  of  administration  and  a  change 
of  party,  in  order  that  there  may  be  a  change  of  system  and 
a  change  of  methods,  thus  assuring  the  maintenance  unim- 
paired of  institutions  under  which  the  Republic  has  grown 
great  and  powerful. 


THE  VOTE  BY  STATES. 


Cleveland's  triumph  in  the  convention  was  largely  due  to 
the  admirable  generalship  of  William  C.  Whitney,  who  was 
Secretary  of  the  Navy  under  the  Cleveland  administration. 
The  nomination  was  accomplished  on  the  first  ballot,  the 
States  voting  as  follows : 

STATE.  CLEVELAND.    HILL.    BOIES. 

Alabama 14          1          2 

Arkansas 10 

California 18 

Colorado 3          5 

Connecticut 12 

Delaware 6 

Florida 5 

Georgia 17          5 

Idaho G 

Illinois 48 

Indiana 30 

Iowa 26 

Kansas 20 

Kentucky 18 

Louisiana 3          1         11 

Maine 9  1 

Maryland 6 

Massachusetts 24          4          1 

Michigan 28 

Minnesota 18 

Mississippi 8          3          3 

Missouri 34 

Montana .  .          0 

Nebraska !•> 

Nevada •  •          4 

New  Hampshire 8 

New  Jersey 20 

New  York 11 

North  Carolina 31-3..  1 

North  Dakota 6 

Ohio 14          6         16 

Oregon     8 

Pennsylvania 64 

Rhode  Island 8 

South  Carolina      ...i 1  3         14 

South  Dakota 7        .  .          1 

Tennessee 24 

Texas 23          1          6 

Vermont .     .       8 

Virginia 12         11 

640 


THE    VOTE    BY    STATES. 


541 


STATE. 

Washington 8 

West  Virginia 7 

Wisconsin 24 

Wyoming 3 

Alaska      2 

Arizona 5 

District  of  (  olunil  i  i 3 

New  Mexico 4 

Oklahoma 2 

Utah 2 

Indian  Territory 2 


CLEVELAND.    HILL.    BOIES. 


Totals  .     .     .     .  .'*.     .     . 010 1-3   112     103 

SCATTERING. 

Alabama  —  Morrison,  4  ;  Campbell,  2.  ,  Florida  —  Car- 
lisle, 3.  Georgia  —  Gorman,  4.  Kentucky  —  Carlisle,  6. 
Louisiana —  Gorman,  1.  Maine  —  Gorman,  1  ;  Whitney,  1. 
Maryland  —  Gorman,  91-2.  Massachusetts  —  Russell,  1. 
Mississippi  —  Gorman,  4.  Nebraska — Gorman,!.  Nevada 
-  Gorman,  2.  North  Carolina  —  Stevenson,  16  2-3  ;  Morri- 
son, 1.  Ohio  —  Carlisle,  5  ;  Gorman,  5.  Virginia  —  Gorman, 
1.  West  Virginia  —  Gorman,  3  ;  Pattison,  1.  Wyoming  — 
Gorman,  3.  Totals — Gorman,  36  1-2;  Stevenson,  16  2-3; 
Morrison,  5  ;  Carlisle,  15  ;  Campbell,  2  ;  Pattison,  1 ;  Whit- 
ney, 1  ;  Russell,  1. 


THE  WHITE  HOUSE  CHILDREN. 


A  curious  phase  of  national  politics  is  the  public  curiosity 
which  has  been  manifested  in  the  children  of  the  Harrison 
family,  and  the  more  recent,  and  if  possible,  more  intense 
interest  which  the  birth  of  "  Baby  Ruth "  Cleveland  has 
aroused.  The  children  of  no  royal  family  have  been  regarded 
with  more  ardent  admiration,  although  neither  of  them  have 
been  seen  to  any  extent  outside  their  respective  home  circles. 
In  a  certain  sense,  this  display  of  the  public  interest,  with 
its  consequent  exaltation  of  the  youthful  persons  concerned, 
has  a  salutary  effect  upon  the  mind  of  young  America.  It 
impresses  the  thinking  boy  and  girl  with  the  cardinal  feature 
of  the  republican  form  of  government,  viz.,  that  the  people 
choose  their  rulers  from  among  themselves,  and  that  the  boy 
or  girl,  who  by  the  fortunes  of  politics  goes  to  live  at  the 
White  House,  may  be  more  fortunate,  but  in  the  eye  of  the 
law  is  no  better  than  the  child  of  the  humblest  citizen. 
Children  in  America  are  democrats  first  and  last.  Far  more 
than  their  elders,  they  have  a  common  feeling  one  towards 
another ;  all  boys  and  girls,  to  a  certain  age,  are  brothers  and 
sisters,  recognizing  in  their  mutual  contact  neither  the 
accidents  of  birth  nor  the  artificial  barrier  of  social  position. 
It  therefore  happens  that  the  boy  in  the  White  House  is,  in 
imagination,  the  playmate  of  every  other  boy  in  the  land. 
In  a  monarchy  this  would  be  impossible,  for  there  the  breach 
between  the  children  of  the  royal  family  and  those  of  the 
people  makes  itself  felt  in  a  multitude  of  ways. 

Never  until  the  Harrison  administration  has  so  much  been 
made  of  the  child  occupants  of  the  Executive  Mansion.  In 

642 


BENJAMIN   HARRISON   McKEE. 


543 


THE    "WHITE    HOUSE    CHILDREN.  545 

fact,  rarely  has  it  happened  that  young  children  have  been 
members  of  the  Presidential  household.  Washington,  who 
had  no  children  of  his  own,  adopted  the  two  youngest 
children  of  his  foster  son,  Colonel  Custis,  —  Eleanor  Parke 
Custis  and  George  Washington  Custis,  and  both  were  present 
at  the  time  of  his  inauguration  as  President,  being  respec- 
tively eleven  and  nine  years  of  age  at  that  time.  There 
was  no  White  House  in  those  days,  and  the  nation's  firs£ 
President  lived  in  New  York  City,  where  the  youngsters 
were  important  members  of  the  social  circle  which  Washington 
drew  about  him.  President  John  Adams  had  Susanna,the  three- 
year-old  .daughter  of  his  deceased  son  Charles,  at  the  White 
House  during  part  of  his  administration.  Jefferson's  daugh- 
ters Martha  and  Mary,  "  Patsey  "  and  "  Polly,"  as  they  were 
familiarly  styled,  were  both  married  during  his  occupancy  of 
the  White  House.  The  former  married  Thomas  Mann 
Randolph,  and  by  him  had  a  child,  James  Madison  Randolph, 
who  was  born  at  the  White  House  in  the  winter  of  1805-6, 
and  was  the  first  child  born  in  that  historic  dwelling.  In 
February,  1829,  when  the  administration  of  John  Quincy 
Adams  was  within  a  month  of  its  ending,  the  White  House 
was  the  scene  of  a  christening  which  was  a  good  deal  of  a 
social  event.  The  infant  was  the  baby  girl  of  the  President's 
son  John,  by  the  latter' s  wife,  born  Miss  Mary  Hellen,  and 
was  christened  Mary  Louisa  in  the  presence  of  the  Cabinet 
officers,  the  Justices  of  the  Supreme  Court,  the  Diplomatic 
Corps,  and  other  notables  at  the  Capitol.  Mary  Louisa  became 
one  of  the  family  circle,  and  was  much  beloved  by  the 
President,  of  whom  it  is  related  that  he  penned  some  verses 
in  honor  of  the  baby,  a  couplet  of  which  declared  that  he 
was  ever  ready  to 

"  Clap  the  hands,  and  laugh,  and  sing 
To  catch  that  heaven,  an  infant's  smile." 

This  administration  baby  was  the  possessor  of  a  doll  known 


546  THE    WHITE    HOUSE    CHILDREN. 

as  "  Sally,"  which  achieved  a  national  reputation  as  the 
"  White  House  Doll."  Mary  Louisa's  tenure  of  office,  how- 
ever, was  cut  short  by  the  inauguration  in  March,  1829,  of 
President  Andrew  Jackson,  whose  eight  years'  occupancy  of 
the  White  House  was  significant,  from  the  present  point 
of  view,  in  that  it  was  the  birthplace  of  three  of  the  four 
children  of  Major  Andrew  Jackson  Donelson,  who  was  Mrs. 
Jackson's  nephew,  and  with  his  wife,  went  to  live  at  the 
White  House  upon  the  General's  inauguration.  A  biogra- 
pher says :  "  There  was  such  frolicking  there  as  has  never 
been  known  before  or  since  ;  the  common  desire  was  to  create 
sunshine  for  the  President,  for  his  public  life  was  most 
stormy  and  trying."  Between  the  intervals  of  his  exploitation 
of  the  doctrine  that  to  the  "  victors  belong  the  spoils,"  the 
hero  of  New  Orleans  found  exceeding  delight  in  darting  into 
the  bath-room  while  the  Donelson  children  were  bathing 
"and  sprinkle  them  with  water,  pretending  to  whip  them 
with  a  wash-cloth,  and  would  laugh  and  chuckle  when  any 
of  them  were  quick  enough  to  return  the  splashing." 

Lincoln's  children  were  favorites  both  with  the  men  who 
were  associated  with  him  during  the  crucial  period  of  the 
nation's  life,  and  with  the  people  generally.  Robert  Todd, 
the  elder,  is  now  the  present  Minister  at  the  Court  of  St. 
James.  William's  death  at  a  tender  age  at  the  White  House 
called  forth  the  nation's  sympathy,  and  prayers  were  uttered 
in  behalf  of  the  grieving  parents.  The  third  son  was  Thomas, 
known  as  "  Tad,"  an  abbreviation  of  Tadpole,  an  affectionate 
name  given  to  him  by  his  father.  A  favorite  picture  of 
Lincoln  represents  him  seated  with  "  Tad "  on  his  knee 
reading  an  open  book. 

The  young  man  who,  for  the  best  part  of  four  years,  has 
lived  at  the  White  House,  has  been  more  prominently  in  the 
public  mind  than  any  other  of  the  "  administration  "  young- 
sters. In  many  respects  he  has  been  the  subject  of  more 
adulation  than  has  his  grandparent.  Although  he  is  but  five 


THE    WHITE    HOUSE    CHILDREN.  547 

years  old,  his  picture  has  been  published  more  often  than 
that  even  of  the  President,  while  columns  of  narrative  set- 
ting forth  his  attributes,  mental,  moral,  and  physical,  have 
been  provided  in  response  to  the  widespread  demand  for  knowl- 
edge regarding  him.  Yet  there  is  no  evidence  that  Benja- 
min Harrison  McKee's  head  has  been  turned  by  all  this 
greatness  thrust  upon  him  ;  on  the  contrary  he  has  carried 
himself  with  a  becoming  dignity  and  a  modesty  of  demeanor 
befitting  his  exalted  position  as  the  First  Boy  in  the  Land. 
LiKe  all  inveterate  office-holders,  he  shakes  hands  after  a  sort 
of  automatic  fashion  due  to  the  obligatory  nature  of  his  duties  ; 
the  Harrisons  never  are  demonstrative  in  their  show  of  feel- 
ing, anyway.  "  Baby "  McKee  is  not  an  exception  to  the 
rule.  However,  he  has  found  himself  confronted  with  a 
condition,  the  theory  of  which  he  feels  he  long  ago  deserved  to 
have  outlived,  but  which  he  seems  to  be  powerless  to  over- 
come, viz.,  the  national  disgrace  he  suffers  in  being  called 
"Baby"  McKee.  It  is  declared  to  be  a  fact  that  whenever 
any  visitor  at  the  White  House  asks  him  ever  so  sweetly 
"  Is  this  Baby  McKee  ? "  or,  "  How  do  you  do,  Baby 
McKee  ?  "  the  grandson  of  the  President  invariably  replies, 
"  I'm  not  Baby  McKee  !  I'm  Benjamin  Harrison  McKee  !  " 
In  accordance  with  his  wishes,  the  doorkeepers  about  the 
White  House  are  careful  to  speak  to  and  of  him  as  Benjamin, 
and  never  as  Ben  or  Benny.  He  readily  comes  forward 
when  his-  presence  is  requested  by  visitors,  but  always  .with 
a  grave  reservation,  born  of  his  habitual  appearance  before 
strangers.  He  is  absolutely  fearless  in  their  presence,  being 
perfectly  composed,  in  this  respect  following  the  habit  of  his 
grandfather  in  receiving  a  crowd  of  people.  But  this  is  not 
the  sole  point  of  similarity  between  the  grandparent  and 
his  grandchild.  Observation  of  the  picture  of  Benjamin 
Harrison  McKee  shows  that  the  boy  has  the  President's 
breadth  and  height  of  forehead,  eyes  of  the  same  color, 
and  a  similar  facial  contour ;  in  fact,  he  could  not  more 


548  THE    WHITE    HOUSE    CHILDREN. 

closely  resemble  the  President  if  he  was  the  President's  own 
son. 

Benjamin  Harrison  McKee  is  the  son  of  James  R.  McKee, 
formerly  of  Indianapolis,  who  married  President  Harrison's 
daughter.  Mi's.  McKee  said  recently  :  — 

"The  name  'Baby'  McKee  belongs  to  Benjamin,,  although 
you  may  see  from  the  picture  that  he  is  older.  My  little  girl  was 
born  just  two  weeks  after  my  father  was  nominated,  so  during 
that  summer  she  was  too  small  to  be  much  in  company.  As 
Benjamin  was  constantly  in  the  yard  and  about  the  house  where 
the  strangers  who  called  saw  him,  the  title  '  Baby  '  McKee  was 
given  him  by  the  people  who  flocked  to  see  ray  father." 

Benjamin's  German  nurse  has  taught  him  the  language  of 
the  Fatherland  so  well  that  he  uses  it  quite  as  fluently  as  the 
mother  tongue.  He  is  an  expert  rider  on  the  velocipede, 
and  an  adept  at  carpentry  after  a  rude  juvenile  fashion.  He 
takes  most  delight,  but  not  less  than  the  President  himself, 
in  playing  with  his  distinguished  grandparent,  whom  he 
leads  in  many  a  boisterous  romp  through  the  Executive 
Mansion.  The  majesty  of  Benjamin's  greatness  has  dimmed 
the  lustre  which  otherwise  might  attach  itself  to  his  fair 
young  sister,  Mary  Lodge  McKee,  who  Is  three  and  a  half 
years  old.  The  world  hears  very  little  of  this  member  of  the 
White  House  family,  but  she  has  a  sweet  disposition  and 
wins  many  friends. 

"  Baby  Ruth  "  Cleveland  achieved  instantaneous  fame  on 
October  3,  1891,  when  she  was  born  at  her  father's  home  in 
New  York  City.  The  rejoicing  which  accompanied  this 
notable  event  was  widespread  and  heartfelt,  and  congratula- 
tions came  thick  and  fast  to  the  overjoyed  father.  A  re- 
markable fact  in  connection  with  Baby  Ruth's  birth  was  the 
unanimity  with  which  it  was  said  that  she  would  help  re- 
elect  her  father  to  the  Presidenc}r.  She  at  once  rose  to  the 
dignity  of  a  political  force,  and  it  was  felt  that  she  would 
make  an  excellent  rival  for  political  honors  against  the 
juvenile  candidate  of  the  Republicans.  If  there  was  any 


MRS.   CLEVELAND   AND    BABY  BUTH. 

549 


THE    WHITE    HOUSE    CHILDREN.  551 

advantage  to  the  Harrison  administration  iu  the  person  of 
Master  Benjamin  Harrison  McKee,  it  was  argued  that  it 
would  be  more  than  offset  by  the  winning  personality  of 
"  Baby  Ruth,"  who,  all  the  accounts  agreed,  was  as  beautiful 
as  her  beautiful  mother.  At  all  events,  Candidate  Cleve- 
land measurably  rose  in  the  public  estimation.  The  cartoon- 
ists, the  newspaper  funny  men,  the  song  writers,  and  the 
poets,  who  previously  had  utilized  Baby  McKee  as  a  source 
of  inspiration,  now  warned  that  young  man  he  must  look 
after  his  laurels,  and  they  forthwith  devoted  a  large  part  of 
their  printed  pleasantries  to  the  infant  daughter  of  the 
Democratic  ex-President.  The  accounts  of  little  Ruth  have 
been  rather  meagre,  but  those  who  care  for  details  may  be 
interested  in  the  following :  — 

"  Half  of  her  face  is  strikingly  like  his  (her  father's)  —  large 
forehead,  heavy  brows,  small  eyes,  strong  nose,  and  large  facial 
angle.  There  is  remarkable  width  of  the  face  from  temple  to 
temple.  In  the  lower  face  the  mother's  likeness  is  seen.  Mrs. 
Cleveland  has  a  very  pretty  mouth  and  as  lovely  a  chin  as  nature 
ever  modeled  in  a  human  face.  Miss  Cleveland  has  the  same 
pretty  mouth,  the  same  lovely  chin,  the  same  smooth  curve  of  the 
cheeks,  and  the  same  laughing  dimple,  heightened  in  charm  by 
the  faultless  delicacy  of  infantile  beauty.  Her  bright  little  eyes 
are  gray-blue,  and  she  has  quite  a  shock  of  long  hair,  black  as 
jet  and  fine  as  corn-tassels.  Oddly  enough,  she  is  not  a  dimpled 
baby  ;  nobody  could  call  her  roly-poly.  An  authority  on  babies 
would  take  her  to  be  a  boy.  She  is  strong  and  muscular,  has  a 
large  frame,  superb  respiration,  good  appetite,  perfect  digestion, 
and  the  promise  of  developing  into  a  large  woman.  Although  a 
ten-pounder,  she  is  a  magnificent  specimen  of  humanity,  well- 
formed,  beautifully  hinged,  and  perfectly  able  to  support  her  own 
weight.  Her  head  doesn't  lop  over  when  she  is  raised  up  ;  she 
doesn't  give  one  the  impression  that  she  will  go  to  pieces  at  the 
bath.  She  takes  to  water  like  a  web-foot  and  shows  a  decided 
taste  for  white  castile  soap  and  velvet  sponges." 


SKETCH  OF  GEN.  JOHN  BIDWELL. 


John  Bidwell  was  born  on  the  fifth  day  of  August,  1819, 
in  Chautauqua  County,  New  York.  His  father,  Abraham 
Bidwell,  was  a  native  of  Connecticut,  and  his  mother,  whose 
maiden  name  was  Clarissa  Griggs,  was  a  native  of  Massachu- 
setts. The  candidate  of  the  Prohibitionists  is,  therefore,  of 
Yankee  origin,  and  his  career  shows  that  he  has  inherited  in 
a  marked  degree  the  peculiar  tact  and  shrewdness,  the  energy 
and  industry  for  which  New  Englanders  are  noted.  His 
grandfather  fought  in  the  War  of  1812,  and  was  an  indus- 
trious and  successful  farmer,  who  reared  a  large  family  of 
children.  The  candidate's  mother  was  noted  for  her  many 
amiable  and  estimable  qualities.  The  boy  received  a  limited 
education ;  but  he  was  a  hard  student  and  had  a  natural  apti- 
tude for  books.  During  his  roving  life  in  the  far  West  he 
passed  much  of  his  time  in  self-improvement,  a  fact  which 
accounts  for  his  creditable  literary  abilities.  His  youthful 
life  was  an  unsettled  one.  When  ten  years  of  age,  his  father 
moved  to  Erie,  Penn.,  and,  two  years  later,  to  Ashtabula 
County,  Ohio,  and,  in  1835,  to  Darke  County,  Ohio ;  the  next 
year,  at  the  age  of  seventeen  years,  feeling  the  necessity  of 
further  schooling,  the  son  returned  to  Ashtabula  County, 
where,  in  the  Kingsville  Academy,  he  studied  less  than  two 
years,  and  ended  his  scholastic  education.  In  1838  he 
returned  home,  spent  one  winter,  and  left,  at  the  age  of  nine- 
teen, to  seek  his  fortune  in  the  West,  single-handed,  and 
without  means. 

He  went  to  Iowa,  then  into  Missouri,  and  up  the  Missouri 
River  to  the  extreme  western  boundary  of  the  State.  These 

552 


SKETCH    OF    GEN.    JOHN    BID  WELL.  553 

travels  occupied  several  months.  Spending  nearly  two  years 
in  Missouri,  he  formed  a  wide  acquaintance,  and  in  the  spring 
of  1841  he  aided  in  organizing  the  first  party  to  cross  the 
Rocky  Mountains  direct  to  California. 

He  enlisted  in  defence  of  California  against  the  insurrection 
of  the  native  chiefs,  Castro  and  Alvarado,  in.the  revolt  of  1844 
and  1845,  and  acted  as  aide-de-camp  to  General  Sutter  till  the 
war  ended  by  the  expulsion  of  the  Mexican  Governor  Michel  to- 
rena.  In  1846  General  Fremont  began  the  war  which  gave 
California  to  the  United  States.  On3  of  Fremont's  first  acts 
after  the  war  was  thought  to  be  closed  was  to  appoint  young 
Bidwell,  then  twenty-seven  years  old,  magistrate  of  San  Luis 
Rey  District. 

In  1849,  at  the  age  of  thirty,  he  was  chosen  a  member  of 
the  first  Constitutional  Convention  of  California  at  Monterey, 
then  the  capital,  but  circumstances  prevented  his  attendance. 
The  same  year  he  was  elected  to  the  senate  of  the  first  legis- 
lature of  California.  In  1850  he  was  appointed  one  of  the 
commissioners,  by  Governor  Burnett,  to  convey  to  Washing- 
ton City  the  block  of  gold-bearing  quartz,  as  California's  con- 
tribution to  the  Washington  monument.  In  1855  he  was 
again  a  candidate  for  the  State  senate.  In  1860  he  was  a 
delegate  to  the  national  Democratic  Presidential  C/onvention 
at  Charleston,  S.  C.,  and  that  year  w£s  a  Union  or  Douglas 
Democrat. 

In  1863  he  was  appointed  by  Governor,  and  now  U.  S. 
Senator,  Leland  Stanford  to  command  the  Fifth  Brigade, 
California  Militia,  serving  till  the  close  of  the  Civil  War.  In 
1864  he  was  a  delegate  to  the  Baltimore  Convention,  which 
re-nominated  President  Lincoln  for  the  Presidency.  In  the 
same  year  he  was  nominated  and  elected  to  the  Thirty-Ninth 
Congress.  Two  years  later,  he  was  tendered  a  re-nomination, 
but  declined.  In  1875  he  was  nominated  for  Governor  of 
California  on  the  Anti-monopoly  or  Non-partisan  State  ticket, 
polling  30,000  votes.  April  4,  1888,  he  was  chosen  to  pre- 


554  SKETCH    OF    OKX.    JOMX    MDWELL. 

side  at  the  State  Prohibition  Convention,  and  was  made  can- 
didate for  Governor  in  1890,  polling  nearly  double  the 
regular  Prohibition  vote  that  year.  He  received  10,868 
votes  to  5,761  for  General  FLsk.  In  1888  he  said:  "  I  am  a 
Prohibitionist,  a  native  American,  and  anti-Chinese  in  the 
sense  of  wholesome  restriction  of  all  foreign  immigration,  and 
an  anti-monopolist  in  the  truest  sense  of  the  term." 

Chico  Vicino,  the  tract  opened  up  to  settlement  adjoining 
General  Bid-well's  private  estate,  has  a  prohibitory  clause 
against  the  manufacture  and  sale  of  all  intoxicants,  which  is 
made  a  condition  precedent  to  all  conveyances  or  certificates 
of  sale  of  land  therein. 

General  Bidwcll  is  popularly  known  as  "  the  father  of 
Chico."  He  is  closely  identified  with  its  leading  enterprises, 
and  is  a  munificent  benefactor,  having  donated  to  the  city  of 
Chico  lands  "for  its  beautiful  public  parks,  lots  for  religious 
and  educational  purposes,  $13,500  to  the  Presbyterian  church 
of  which  he  is  a  member,  land  for  the  station  of  the  State 
Forestry  Commission,  the  site  for  the  State  Normal  School  at 
Chico,  etc.  The  Normal  school  i.->  in  close  proximity  to 
General  Bidwell's  beautiful  villa  and  residence  —  the  Rancho 
Chico  —  a  magnificent  estate  which  contains  all  varieties  of 
trees  and  shrubs,  interwoven  with  clear  streams  and  forty-five 
miles  of  drives  and  walks,  which  are  always  open  to  the 
public.  After  his  defeat  for  Governor  he  became  interested  in 
the  drink  problem.  At  that  time  his  ranch  had  many  pro- 
ductive vineyards,  and  his  wine  cellars  contained  a  varied 
assortment  of  native  wines.  He  caused  all  his  cellars  to  be 
turned  out,  and  his  vines  to  be  destroyed,  and  from  that  time 
he  was  an  ardent  worker  in  the  cause  of  prohibition. 

General  Bidwell  was  married  in  1868  to  Annie,  elder 
daughter  of  the  late  Joseph  E.  C.  Kennedy,  a  prominent 
resident  of  Washington,  D.  C.,  and  member  of  a  cultured 
Maryland  family.  She  has  strongly  seconded  her  husband's 
public  and  philanthropic  benefactions,  and  especially  his 


SKETCH    OP    GKX.    JOHX    BIDWBLL.  555 

efforts  to  protect,  enlarge,  and  educate  the  Indians  living  at 
the  Ranchiera  on  Rancho  Chico,  the  school  being  under  her 
direct  supervision.  The  general  has  built  a  chapel  for  them, 
and  Mrs.  Bidwell  herself  conducts  the  Sunday  services.  She 
is  a  noble  Christian  woman. 

General  Bidwell  is  a  man  of  untiring  enterprise,  with  a 
large  heart  and  a  powerful  mind ;  a  man  of  wide  reading, 
high  culture  and  refined  taste,  and  withal  a  strong,  true  man. 
He  is  six  feet  three  inches  in  height,  with  splendid  physique, 
commanding  and  dignified  in  appearance,  and  has  the  attri- 
butes of  one  born  to  be  a  leader  of  men. 

One  of  his  admirers  said  of  him:  "Put  him  beside  Cleve- 
land and  he  would  tower  eighteen  inches  above  him ;  put 
him  beside  the  Republican  nominee  and  he  would  hide  him, 
hat  and  all." 

In  the  Cincinnati  Convention  of  the  Prohibitionist  party, 
he  was  nominated  for  President  by  Ex-Gov.  John  P.  St.  John, 
who  said  that  General  Bidwell  was  one  of  the  pioneers  of 
California,  a  man  who  has  always  been  in  sympathy  with  the 
people  of  the  country,  a  man  who  has  labored  with  his  hands 
and  earned  money  by  the  sweat  of  his  brow,  a  man  loyal  to 
the  principles  of  this  party.  He  has  served  two  terms  in 
Congress.  He  voted  for  the  Pacific  railroad  bill,  because  he 
would  not  have  represented  his  constituents  properly  if  he 
hadn't ;  he  voted  to  take  the  tax  off  wine  and  brandy,  and 
God  bless  him  for  that. 

After  the  roll  of  States  had  been  called  the  Convention 
proceeded  to  a  ballot,  with  the  following  result :  Whole 
number  of  votes,  974.  Necessary  for  a  choice,  487.  John 
Bidwell,  of  California,  had  590.  Gideon  T.  Stewart,  of  Ohio, 
had  179.  W.  Jennings  Demorest,  of  New  York,  had  139. 
H.  Clay  Bascom,  of  New  York,  had  3.  General  Bidwell  was 
declared  the  nominee  of  the  Convention  for  President. 

J.  B.  Cranfill,  of  Texas,  nominated  by  the  Prohibitionists 
for  Vice-President,  is  about  forty-five  years  old.  He  was  a  candi- 


556  SKETCH    OF    GEN.    JOHN    IJIDWELL. 

date  before  the  Convention  of  the  party  in  1888,  but  was 
defeated.  He  is  editor  of  the  Advance,  of  Prohibition  and 
Reform,  and  also  of  the  Baptist  Standard,  all  of  which  are 
published  in  Texas. 

The  figures  on  the  first  ballot  for  Vice  President  were  : 
Levering,  380;  Cranfill,  386;  Satterlee,  26;  Carskadon,  21. 
Enough  changes  were  made  before  the  figures  were 
announced,  however,  to  give  Cranfill  416  votes,  nine  more 
than  enough  to  win. 


THE  PROHIBITIONIST  PLATFORM. 


The  Prohibition  party,  in  national  convention  assembled, 
acknowledging  Almighty  God  a.s  the  source  of  all  true  gov- 
ernment, and  His  law  as  the  standard  to  which  all  human 
enactments  must  conform  to  secure  the  blessings  of  peace 
and  prosperity,  presents  the  following  declaration  of  princi- 
ples : 

1.  The  liquor  traffic  is  a  foe  to  civilization,  the  arch-enemy 
of  popular  government  and  a  public  nuisance.     It  is  the  cita- 
del of  the  forces  that  corrupt  politics,  promote  poverty  and 
crime,  degrade  the  nation's  home  life,  thwart  the  will  of  the 
people,  and  deliver  our  country  into  the  hands  of  rapacious 
class  interests.     All  laws  that,  under  the  guise  of  regulation, 
legalize  and  protect  this  traffic,   or    make    the  government 
share  in  its   ill-gotten  gains,  are  "vicious   in  principle,  and 
powerless  as  a  remedy."     We   declare  anew  for  the  entire 
suppression  of  the   manufacture,  sale,  importation,  exporta- 
tion, and  transportation  of  alcoholic  liquors  as  a  beverage  by 
Federal  and  State  legislation,  and  the  full  powers  of  the  gov- 
ernment should  be  exerted  to  secure  this  result.     Any  party 
that  fails  to  recognize  the  dominant  nature   of  this  issue  in 
American  politics  is  undeserving  of  the  support  of  the  people. 

2.  No  citizen  should  be  denied  the  right  to  vote  on  account 
of  sex,  and  equal  labor  should  receive  equal  wages,  without 
regard  to  sex. 

3.  The  money  of  the  country  should  consist  of  gold,  silver, 
and  paper,  and  should  be  issued  by  the  general  government 
only,  and  in  sufficient   quantities   to   meet  the   demands  of 
business  and  give   full   opportunity  for   the  employment  of 


558  THK    PROHIBITIONIST    PLATFORM. 

labor.  To  this  end  an  increase  in  the  volume  of  money  is 
demanded,  and  no  individual  or  corporation  should  be  allowed 
to  make  any  profit^  through  its  issue.  It  should  be  made  a 
legal  tender  for  the  payment  of  all  debts,  public  and  private. 
Its  volume  should  be  fixed  at  a  definite  sum  per  capita,  and 
made  to  increase  with  our  increase  in  population. 

4.  We  favor  the  free  and  unlimited  coinage  of  silver  and 
gold. 

5.  Tariff  should  be  levied  only  as  a  defence  against  foreign 
governments  which  levy  tariff  upon  or  bar  out  our  products 
from  their  markets,  revenue  being  incidental.     The  residue 
of  means  necessary  to  an  economical  administration  of  the 
government  should  be  raised  by  levying  a  burden  on  what 
the  people  possess,  instead  of  upon  what  we  consume. 

6.  Railroads,    telegraph,    and    other    public    corporations 
should  be  controlled  by  the  government  in  the  interest  of  the 
people,  and  no  higher  charges  allowed  than  necessary  to  give 
fair  interest  on  the  capital  actually  invested. 

7.  Foreign  immigration  has  become  a  burden  upon  indus- 
try, one  of  the  factors  in  depressing  wages  and  causing  dis- 
content, therefore  our  immigration  laws  should  be  revised  and 
strictly  enforced.     The  time  of  residence  for  naturalization 
should  be  extended,  and  no  naturalized   person   should   be 
allowed  to  vote  until  one  vear  after  he  becomes  a  citizen. 

8.  Non-resident  aliens  should  not  be  allowed  to  acquire 
land  in  this  country,  and  we  favor  the  limitation  of  individual 
and  corporate  ownership  of  land.     All  unearned  grants  of 
land  to  railroad  companies  or  other  corporations  should  be 
reclaimed. 

9.  Years  of   inaction  and  treachery  on  the  part  of   the 
Republican  and   Democratic    parties    have    resulted    in    the 
present  reign  of  mob  law,  and  we  demand  that  every  citizen 
be  protected  the  right  of  trial  by  constitutional  tribunals. 

10.  All  men  should  be  protected  by  law  in  their  right  to 
one  day's  rest  in  seven. 


THK    PROHIBITIONIST    PLATFORM.  559 

11.  Arbitration  is  the  wisest  and   most  economical  and 
humane  method  of  settling  national  differences. 

12.  Speculation    in    margins,    the    cornering  of    grain, 
money,  and  products,  and  the  formation  of  pools,  trusts,  and 
combinations  for  the  arbitrary  advancement  of  prices,  should 
be  suppressed. 

13.  We  pledge  that  the  Prohibition  party,  if  elected  to 
power,  will  ever  grant  just  pensions  to  disabled  veterans  of 
the  Union  army  and  navy,  their  widows  and  orphans. 

14.  We  stand    unequivocally  for  the    American    public 
school  and  opposed  to  any  appropriation  of  public  moneys  for 
sectarian  schools.     We  declare  that  only  by  united  support 
of  such  common  schools,  taught  in  the  English  language,  can 
we  hope  to  become  and  remain  a  homogeneous  and  harmonious 
people. 

15.  We  arraign  the  Republican  and  Democratic  parties 
as  false  to  the  standards  reared  by  their  founders  ;    as  faith- 
less to  the  principles  of  the  illustrious  leaders  of  the  past,  to 
whom  they  do  homage  with  the   lips ;    as  recreant  to   the 
"  higher  law,"  which  is  as  inflexible  in  political  affairs  as  in 
personal  life,  and  as  no  longer  embodying  the  aspirations  of 
the  American  people,  or  inviting  the  confidence  of  enlightened 
progressive  patriotism.     Their  protest  against  the  admission 
of  "  moral  issues"  into  politics  is  a  confession  of  their  own 
moral  degeneracy.     The  declaration  of  an  eminent  authority 
that  municipal  misrule    is  "the  one  conspicuous  failure  of 
American  politics  "  follows  as  a  natural  consequence  of  such 
degeneracy,  and  is  true  alike  of  cities  under  Republican  and 
Democratic  control.     Each  accuses  the  other  of  extravagance 
in  congressional  appropriations,  and  both  are  alike  guilty; 
each  protests  when  out  of  power  against  the  infraction  of  the 
civil  service  laws,  and  each  when  in  power  violates  those  laws 
in  letter  and  spirit ;  each  professes  fealty  to  the  interests  of  the 
toiling  masses,  but  both  covertly  truckle  to  the  money  power 
in  their   administration  of   public  affairs.     Even    the    tariff 


560  THE    PROHIBITIONIST    PLATFORM. 

issue,  as  represented  in  the  Democratic  Mills  bill  and  the 
Republican  McKinley  bill,  is  no  longer  treated  by  them  as  an 
issue  upon  great  and  divergent  principles  of  government,  but 
is  a  mere  catering  to  different  sectional  and  class  interests. 
The  attempt  in  many  States  to  wrest  the  Australian  ballot 
system  from  its  true  purpose,  and  to  so  deform  it  as  to  render 
it  extremely  difficult  for  new  parties  to  exercise  the  rights  of 
suffrage,  is  an  outrage  upon  popular  government.  The  com- 
petition of  both  the  parties  for  the  vote  of  the  slums  and  their 
assiduous  courting  of  the  liquor  power  and  subserviency  to 
the  money  power  has  resulted  in  placing  those  powers  in  the 
position  of  practical  arbiters  of  the  destinies  of  the  nation. 
We  renew  our  protest  against  these  perilous  tendencies,  and 
invite  all  citizens  to  join  us  in  the  upbuilding  of  a  party  that 
has  shown  in  five  national  campaigns  that  it  prefers  temporary 
defeat  to  an  abandonment  of  the  claims  of  justice,  sobriety, 
personal  rights,  and  the  protection  of  American  homes. 


GEN.  JAMES  B.  WEAVER. 


James  B.  Weaver,  the  candidate  of  the  People's  party, 
was  born  in  Dayton,  O.,  June  12,  1833.  He  was  graduated 
at  the  law  school  of  Ohio  University,  Cincinnati,  in  1854. 

In  April,  1861,  he  enlisted  as  a  private  in  the  Second  Iowa 
Infantry,  was  elected  a  lieutenant,  rose  to  be  major  Oct.  3, 
1861,  and  after  the  senior  field-officers  had  fallen  at  Corinth 
was  commissioned  colonel  Oct.  12,  1862.  He  was  brevetted 
brigadier-general  March  13,  1865,  for  gallantry  in  action. 

After  the  war  he  resumed  legal  practice,  was  elected  dis- 
trict-attorney of  the  second  judicial  district  of  Iowa  in  1866, 
and  was  appointed  assessor  of  internal  revenue  for  the  fifth 
district  of  the  State  in  1867,  serving  six  years. 

He  became  editor  of  the  Iowa  Tribune,  published  at  Des 
Moines,  and  was  elected  to  Congress,  taking  his  seat  March 
18,  1879. 

In  June,  1880,  he  was  nominated  for  the  Presidency  by 
the  convention  of  the  National  Greenback-Labor  party,  and 
in  the  November  election  he  received  307,740  votes.  He 
was  returned  to  Congress  after  an  interval  of  two  terms  by 
the  vote  of  the  Greenback-Labor  and  Democratic  parties, 
taking  his  seat  Dec.  7,  1885,  and  in  1886  was  re-elected. 


561 


THE  PEOPLE'S  PARTY  PLATFORM. 


Assembled  upon  the  116th  anniversary  of  the  Declaration 
of  Independence,  the  People's  Party  of  America,  in  their  first 
national  convention,  invoking  upon  their  action  the  blessing 
of  Almighty  God,  put  forth,  in  the  name  and  on  behalf  of 
the  people  of  this  country,  the  following  preamble  and  dele- 
gation of  principles :  — 

The  conditions  which  surround  us  best  justify  our  co-opera- 
tion ;  we  meet  in  the  midst  of  a  nation  brought  to  the  verge 
of  moral,  political,  and  material  ruin.  Corruption  dominates 
the  ballot  box,  the  legislatures,  the  congress,  and  touches 
even  the  ermine  of  the  bench.  The  people  are  demoralized  ; 
most  of  the  States  have  been  compelled  to  isolate  the  voters 
at  the  polling  places  to  prevent  universal  intimidation  or 
bribery.  The  newspapers  are  largely  subsidized  or  muzzled, 
public  opinion  silenced,  business  prostrated,  our  homes  covered 
with  mortgages,  labor  impoverished,  and  the  land  concentrat- 
ing in  the  hands  of  the  capitalists.  The  urban  workmen  are 
denied  the  right  of  organization  for  self-protection ;  imported 
pauperized  labor  beats  down  their  wages ;  a  hireling  standing 
army,  unrecognized  by  our  laws,  is  established  to  shoot  them 
down,  and  they  are  rapidly  degenerating  into  European  con- 
ditions. The  fruits  of  the  toil  of  millions  are  boldly  stolen 
to  build  up  colossal  fortunes  for  a  few,  unprecedented  in  the 
history  of  mankind,  and  the  possessors  of  these,  in  turn, 
despise  the  republic  and  endanger  liberty. 

We  declare  that  this  republic  can  only  endure  as  a  free 
government  while  built  upon  the  love  of  the  whole  people 
for  each  other  and  for  the  nation ;  that  it  cannot  be  pinned 

£62 


THB  PEOPLE'S  PARTY  PLATFORM.  563 

together  by  bayonets ;  that  the  Civil  War  is  over,  and  that 
every  passion  and  resentment  which  grew  out  of  it  must  die 
with  it,  and  that  we  must  be  in  fact,  as  we  are  in  name,  one 
united  brotherhood  of  free  men. 

Silver,  which  has  been  accepted  as  coin  since  the  dawn  of 
history,  has  been  demonetized  to  add  to  the  purchasing  power 
of  gold,  by  decreasing  the  value  of  all  forms  of  property  as 
well  as  human  labor,  and  the  supply  of  currency  is  purposely 
abridged  to  fatten  usurpers,  bankrupt  enterprise,  and  enslave 
industry.  A  vast  conspiracy  against  mankind  has  been 
organized  on  two  continents,  and  it  is  rapidly  taking  posses- 
sion of  the  world.  If  not  met  and  overthrown  at  once,  it 
forebodes  terrible  social  convulsions,  the  destruction  of  civili- 
zation, or  the  establishment  of  an  absolute  despotism. 

Our  country  finds  itself  confronted  by  conditions  for 
which  there  is  no  precedent  in  the  history  of  our  world ; 
our  annual  agricultural  productions  amount  to  billions  of 
dollars  in  value,  which  must  within  a  few  weeks  or  months 
be  exchanged  for  billions  of  dollars  of  commodities  consumed 
in  their  production  ;  the  existing  currency  supply  is  wholly 
inadequate  to  make  this  exchange  ;  the  results  are  falling 
prices,  the  formation  of  combines  and  rings,  the  impoverish- 
ment of  the  producing  class.  We  pledge  ourselves  that  if 
given  power  we  will  labor  to  correct  those  evils  by  wise  and 
reasonable  legislation,  in  accordance  with  the  terms  of  our 
platform.  We  believe  that  the  powers  of  government  —  in 
other  words  of  the  people  —  should  be  expanded  (as  in  the 
case  of  the  postal  service)  as  rapidly  and  as  far  as  the  good 
sense  of  an  intelligent  people  and  the  teachings  of  expe- 
rience shall  justify,  to  the  end  that  oppression,  injustice,  and 
poverty  shall  eventually  cease  in  the  land. 

Assembled  on  the  anniversary  of  the  birthday  of  the 
nation,  and  filled  with  the  spirit  of  the  grand  general  and 
chief  who  established  our  independence,  we  seek  to  restore 
the  government  of  the  republic  to  the  hands  of  the  "  plain 


564         THE  PEOPLE'S  PARTY  PLATFORM. 

/ 

people,"  with  which  class  it  originated.  We  assert  our  pur- 
poses to  be  identical  with  the  purposes  of  the  national  con- 
stitution, to  form  a  more  perfect  union  and  establish  justice, 
insure  domestic  tranquility,  provide  for  the  common  defence, 
promote  the  general  welfare  and  secure  the  blessings  of  lib- 
erty for  ourselves  and  our  posterity. 

We  declare,  therefore,  that  the  union  of  the  labor  forces  of 
the  United  States  this  day  consummated  shall  be  permanent 
and  perpetual  ;  may  its  spirit  enter  into  all  hearts  for  the  sal- 
vation of  the  republic  and  the  uplifting  of  mankind. 

Wealth  belongs  to  him  who  creates  it ;  every  dollar  taken 
from  industry  without  an  equivalent  is  robbery.  "  If  any 
will  not  work  neither  shall  he  eat." 

We  believe  that  the  time  has  come  when  the  railroad  cor- 
porations will  either  own  the  people  or  the  people  must  own 
the  railroads,  and  should  the  government  enter  upon  the 
work  of  owning  and  managing  all  railroads,  we  should  favor 
an  amendment  to  the  constitution  by  which  all  persons 
engaged  in  the  government  service  shall  be  placed  under  a 
civil  service  regulation  of  the  most  rigid  character,  so  as  to 
prevent  the  increase  of  the  power  of  the  national  adminis- 
tration by  the  use  of  such  additional  government  employees. 

We  demand  free  and  unlimited  coinage  of  silver  and  gold 
at  the  present  legal  ratio  of  16  to  1. 

We  demand  that  the  amount  of  circulation  medium  be 
speedily  increased  to  not  less  than  $50  per  capita. 

We  demand  a  graduated  income  tax. 

We  believe  that  the  money  of  the  country  shpuld  be  kept 
as  much  as  possible  in  the  hands  of  the  people,  and  hence  we 
demand  that  all  State  and  national  revenues  shall  be  limited 
to  the  necessary  expenses  of  the  government  economically 
and  honestly  administered. 

We  demand  that  people's  savings  banks  be  established  by 
the  government  for  the  safe  deposit  of  the  earnings  of  the 
people  and  to  facilitate  exchange. 


THE  PEOPLE'S  PARTY  PLATFORM.  565 

Transportation  being  a  means  of  exchange  and  a  public 
necessity,  the  government  should  own  and  operate  the  rail- 
roads in  the  interest  of  the  people. 

The  telegraph,  telephone,  like  the  post-office  system,  being 
a  necessity  for  the  transmission  of  news,  should  be  owned 
and  operated  by  the  government  in  the  interests  of  the 
people. 

The  land,  including  all  the  natural  sources  of  wealth,  is 
the  heritage  of  the  people  and  should  not  be  monopolized  for 
speculative  purposes,  and  alien  ownership  of  land  should  be 
prohibited.  All  land  now  held  by  railroads  and  old  corpora- 
tions in  excess  of  their  actual  needs,  and  all  lands  now  owned 
by  aliens  should  be  reclaimed  by  the  government  and  held 
for  actual  settlers  only. 

A  supplement  to  the  platform  was  adopted,  demanding  a 
free  ballot  and  a  fair  count  without  federal  intervention  ; 
favoring  a  graduated  income  tax  and  fair  and  liberal  pen- 
sions ;  demanding  further  restriction  of  undesirable  immigra- 
tion ;  expressing  sympathy  with  the  eight-hour  movement ; 
demanding  abolition  of  the  Pinkerton  detective  system  ; 
favoring  a  single  term  for  Presidents,  and  election  of  senators 
by  the  direct  vote  of  the  people ;  and  opposing  subsidies. 

On  the  roll-call  of  States  for  presentation  of  candidates  for 
President,  Gen.  J.  B.  Weaver,  Senator  Kyle,  General  Field, 
of  Virginia,  ex-Senator  Van  Wick,  of  Nebraska,  Mann  Page, 
of  Virginia,  and  Ignatius  Donnelly  were  placed  in  nomina- 
tion. Virginia  withdrew  her  candidates. 

The  first  ballot  resulted:  Weaver,  995  ;  Kyle,  265  ;  Norton. 
1 ;  Page,  1 ;  Stanford,  1. 

Gen.  J.  G.  Field,  of  Virginia,  was  nominated  for  Vice- 
President. 


8 


"BUTLER'S   BOOK. 


55 


The  Autobiography  and  Personal  Reminiscences  of  Major-General 

BENJAMIN    F.    BUTLER, 

The  Great  General,  Lawyer,  Politician,  and  Student. 


No  American  has  had  a  more  interesting  career,  from  child- 
hood to  old  age,  than  Benjamin  F.  Butler.  No  autobiography 
could  be  more  interesting  than  the  large  volume  in  which  this 
most  unique  character  among  all  our  public  men  has"  told  the 
story  of  his  long,  turbulent,  triumphant  life. 

It  is  a  vivid  picture  of  more  than  two  generations  of  American 
life.  It  has  lots  of  humor,  and  a  fair  proportion  of  pathos  and 
heroism.  It  would  be  hard  to  imagine  an  autobiography  con- 
taining more  of  the  element  of  popular  interest. 

The  story  of  General  Butler's  life  falls  into  four  divisions,  as 
follows : 

Childhood  and  Education.  The  War. 

Politics.  The  Law. 

If  Benjamin  F.  Butler  had  lived  in  the  day  when  brains  and 
iron  nerves  could  win  a  throne,  he  would  have  been  an  emperor. 
As  it  is,  he  has  hewn  his  way  to  immortal  fame. 

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Universal  Interest  and  Unparalleled  Sale. 

Three  Editions  Sold  In  One  Month. 


The  Verdict  o*  the  People  on  "  Butler's  Book"  is  expressed  in 
VOX    POPULI,    VOX    DEI. 

Sixty  pages  neatly  bound,  containing  upwards  of  150  fac-simile  repro- 
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of  the  country.  A  gem  of  art.  An  album  of  autographs  and  treasure  of 
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The  Story  of  Government. 


An  attraction  such  as  the  Story  of  Government  ha*  never  before  been  offered  to  the 
great  book-loving  American  people.  It  is  an  entirely  new  conception,  yet  something 
which  the  public  and  political  scholars  have  long  felt  to  be  necessary. 

The  rudiments  of  evolution  and  government  traced  from  animals  to  savage  and 
wandering  tribes,  upwards  through  the  successive  stages  of  barbarism  and  civilization. 

Narratives  of  all  the  forms  of  government  under  which  the  human  race  has  lived  in 
the  past  and  as  they  exist  at  present. 

Law  and  Order  Among  all  Forms  of  Animate  Oreation. 

Animals  to  Man.  Family  to  Federation.  Savagery  to  Civilization.  Ignorance  to 
Enlightenment.  Despotism  to  Self-Government. 

Government  Ancng  Animals. 

The  Dog  Democracy  of  Constantinople.  The  Queen  Bee's  Monarchy.  The  Republic 
of  the  Ants.  The  Royalty  of  the  Roaches.  The  Caucus  of  the  Crows,  etc. 

Curions  Forms  of  Government  Among  Men. 

The  Mysterious  Gypsy  Monarchy.  The  ThiBves'  Aristocracy.  Sovereignty 
among  Secret  Societies.  The  Modern  Amazons  of  Dahomey,  etc.  Masonic,  ordrm 
and  the  Tainmany  Powci'  of  Keve  York,  about  which  so  much  is  spoken  anil 
nothing  known.  Assassination-  Societies.  The  Camorra  and  Mafia. 

Monarchies. 

An  Absolute  Monarchy  (Persia).  A  Scholastic  Empire  with  Figurehead 
Emperor  (China,).  A  Country  of  Mismanagement  and  Atrocities  (India).  A  Semi- 
Constitutional  Monarchy  (Germany),  etc.  A  Constitutional  Monarchy  evolved  from  a 
Feudal  Kingdom  (England). 

Church  Governments. 

Theocracy  or  Priestly  Government  among  the  Ancient,  Early,  and  Christian  Churches 
Spiritual  Authority  and  Government  of  the  Present  Church,  etc. 

Women  in  Governments. 

Her  influence  on  the  destiny  of  man.  Cleopatra  — Maria  Teresa  — Catherine  of 
Russia  — Louise  of  Prussia— Isabella  Jean  D'Arc,  etc.  Woman  Suffrage.  Rise  of 
woman  as  a  political  factor. 

Self  Governments 

Triba>  Governments ;  American  Indians,  Paternal  Socialism ;  The  Incas  of  Peru. 
The  Simple  Republic,  Switzerland.  A  Military  Republic,  France.  A  Dictatorial 
Republic,  Mexico.  The  Republic  of  the  United  States,  as  a  Nation  and  as  a  Sister- 
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A  Treasury  of  Knowledge  Previously  Unpublished. 

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BY    REV.    WILLIAM     M.    THAYER. 


The  latest  and  greatest  work  of  a  renowned  author. 

Author  of  « Marvels  of  the  New  West,"  "  White  House  and 
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An  Encyclopedia  of  character  traits.  Religious,  historic,  bio- 
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Incidents  and  anecdotes  of  self-made  men  and  women,  illus- 
trated by  character  traits  that  will  be  easily  remembered,  enabling 
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ergetic, aspiring  person. 

A    COMPANION    FOR     LIFE. 

How  to  establish  a  character,  a  reputation,  and  accumulate 
wealth. 

2OO  Photogravures;    All  Works  of  Art. 

From  original  designs  engraved  expressly  for  this  work. 

A  magnificent  full-page  engraving  illustrates  the  subject  of 
each  chapter. 

Vivid  in  art  and  eloquent  in  words. 

The  rarest  book  of  the  times. 

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A  great  compliment  to  author  and  publisher  of  a  popular 
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Geo.  Williams,  Esq.,  the  merchant  prince  of  England  and 
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Agents  wanted. 


The  Romances  of  a  Continent.    Glimpses  of  unwritten  lifstory  of  ancient  America. 

History  Reverted.  How  Guacanagari  Discovered  Columbus.  The  Marvellous  Tra- 
dition of  an  Indian  Cacique,  and  Curiosities  of  Art  and  Literature,  hitherto  acces- 
sible only  in  museums  and  archives  of  European  and  South  American  Governments 
set  forth  in  popular  form. 

Was  Columbus  a,  Pirate  ?  The  Prophesy.  The  Holy  Virgin  appears  to  Columbus  in 
a  dream,  and  thenceforth  he  devotes  his  life  to  this  divinely  revealed  mission. 

The  Voyage  of  Discovery.  Columbus  sailing  for  the  Indies.  The  most  heroic  and 
adventurous  quest  the  world  has  ever  known.  Told  by  the  Boy  who  Sailed  with 
Columbus.  A  page  of  Queen  Isabella's  Court,  from  a  Spanish  manuscript  preserved 
350  years  in  a  monastery.  A  romantic  and  fascinating  revelation  of  history. 

The  Future  of  America.  Revealed  in  Columbus'  death  dream.  Legends  and 
Myths  of  Prehistoric  Inhabitants.  Ancient  Religions,  Science,  and  Forms  of  Gov- 
ernment. Musty  manuscripts  recently  discovered. 

Earlier  Discoveries.  St.  Brendan,  the  Catholic  Missionary,  discovers  the  earthly 
paradise,  America,  in  the  seventh  century. 

Strange  Origin  of  the  Madoc  Tribe.  An  ancient  Prince  of  Wales  in  the  ninth 
century  sails  to  an  unknown  land,  joins  the  natives,  and  becomes  their  chief. 

The  Kaga  of  Eric  the  Red.  Voyages  of  the  Norsemen  transmitted  in  medieval  legend. 

The 'Pre-Columbian  Age.  The  age  of  pirates  and  banditti.  Conquest,  plunder,  and 
lawlessness.  European  conditions  that  necessitated  the  search  for  new  lands.  New 
ideas  struggling  for  expression.  The  advance  of  art,  science,  and  inventions,  pre- 
paring the  way  for  a  new  world. 

The  Story  of  Religion  and  Revolutions.  An  afje  of  superstition  and  fanatic  zeal. 
Conquering  new  lands  for  the  spread  of  Christianity.  The  Crusades.  The  infidel 
Moors  and  the  victory  of  Christianity.  The  Church.  Subjecting  governments. 
Monastic  life.  The  Inquisition,  etc. 

The  Stories  of  Science.  The  ignorance  of  the  Dark  Ages.  Alchemists;  Their  vain 
experimenting  for  gold.  Astrologers  Forecasting  Fate,  Scientific  Laws  and  Discov- 
eries from  the  Revolutions  of  the  Stars.  Speculations  of  the  Foundation  of  the 
Earth.  The  Short  "Way  to  the  Indies.  Geography,  Mathematics,  and  Sciences  to 
meet  the  demands  of  expanding  Commerce  and  Exjbloration. 

Superstition  of  the  14th  and  15th  Centuries.  Superstitions  of  the  Seas,  Land, 
Heaven,  and  Hell.  The  World  Flat,  Danger  of  Sailing  off  the  Edge.  Distant  Seas 
Believed  to  be  Boiling  Caldrons,  Strange  Seas  the  whirlpools  and  Gates  to  Hell. 
Ship-Devouring  Monsters,  Mermaids,  and  Decoying  Mariners,  etc. 

Story  of  Navigation.    The  Raft  and  Canoe.    The  Ships  of  Mythology.    The  Phoeni- 
cian and  Venetian  Galleys  and  Merchant  Ships.    Pirates,  their  Life,  Ships,  and  Ex- 
§lorations.     Spanish  Caravels,  Columbus'  Ships.    Commerce  and  Conquest  on  the 
ea.    The  Compass  Extending  the  Range  of  Trade.    The  Spirit  of  Adventure  and 
Exploration. 

The  Greed  for  Gold.    Horrible  cruelties  to  extort  secrets  of  hidden  treasures. 

The  Fountain  of  Youth.    The  Intfian  tales  of  a  land  of  gold  to  the  West. 

Traditions  of  Pre-historic  America.    The  Fabled  Continent  of  Atlantis. 

Dragon  Roch  of  Alton,  III.    An  Indian  Superstition  of  the  Mississippi. 

The  Lost  City  of  Venezuela.    More  tragic  than  the  burial  of  Pompeii. 
Extinct  Races  and  Civilizations,  their  religious  and  superstitious  customs,  arts,  and 
forms  of  government.    Peru,  the  Incus,  and  Pizarro. 

Mexico,  the  Aztecs,  and  lUontezumas.  Cliff  and  Cave  Dwellers  and  Mound  Builders. 
The  Indians  and  Esqirimaus,  their  Life,  Religions,  Customs,  Habits,  Governments, 
Wars,  etc.  Splendid  Architecture  of  Yucatan  and  Central  America. 

Four  Great  Theories  of  the  Origin  of  the  American  Indians.  Red  men  indig- 
enous to  the  soil.  Descendants  of  the  lost  tribes  of  Israel  journeying  eastward  from 
Palestine  and  crossing  Behring  Straits  into  America.  Fusang  records  a  migration 
of  Mongols,  who  became  a  race  of  rulers,  the  Aztecs.  Europeans  crossed  from 
Africa  and  South  America  by  the  ancient  continent  of  Atlantis. 

This  wealth  of  unpublished  lore  forms  a  striking  contrast  to  the  dry  record  and 
innumerable  lives  of  Columbus  and  accounts  of  the  discovery  with  which  the  coun- 
try is  surfeited.  It  throws  a  flood  of  light  on  American  history  which  has  previously 
been  involved  in  total  darkness.  Out  of  traditions,  and  exhumed  relics,  and  hiero- 
glyphic records,  is  evolved  a  new  history  of  the  Western  World.  The  outcome  of 
centuries  of  research  and  study,  and  the  work  of  years  of  authorship  and  painstak- 
ing arrangement.  A  rare  American  historical  book.  It  will  meet  the  universal 
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obscurity  of  unrecorded  antiquity. 

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iMrge   size   quarto  folio,  nearly    9OO  pages,  profusely   illustrated   with    4OO 

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ITS  OBJECT  IS  TO  GIVE  A  complete  historical  record  of  the  Columbian 
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Story  of  the  Union  in  Rhyme, 

ILLUSTRATED. 

A    Poetic    History    of   the    United    States    Complete 
and    Connected. 


It  is  a  story  of  discovery  beginning  with  the  Norsemen,  and  all 
the  succeeding  great  events,  written  up  to  the  present  year,  1892. 
told  in  the  pleasing  music  of  verse  <nid  rhyme. 

Dates  and  names  no  longer  difficult  to  remember  when  woven 
into  rhyme,  as  in  this  book.  It  begins  as  follows : 

"  About  the  year  ten  hundred  two, 

So  Iceland's  legends  say, 
Norwegians  saw  America 
From  Greenland  to  Cape  May." 


Just  as  the  number  of  the  days  of  the  months  are  universally 
remembered  by  the  simple  lines, 

"  Thirty  days  hath  September, 
April,  June,  and  November." 

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upon  the  minds  of  young  people,  and  the  impressions  thus  made 
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from  which  it  was  borrowed. 


01 


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